A Simple Guide to Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
-----------------------------------------
What is Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
----------------------------------
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome is the compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel of the wrist.
The carpal tunnel is a ligamentous sheath which provides protection for the median nerve as it travels across the carpal bones in the wrist.
What are the causes of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
------------------------------------------------
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome occur as a result of pressure on the median nerve between the tranverse carpal ligament and the flexor tendons with their inflammed and enlarged synovium.
Local causes:
-------------
trauma including injury,fractures
tenosynovitis(inflammation of the tendon and their synovial sheath)
lipoma
ganglion
Systemic causes:
------------------
polyarthritis
myxedema (hypothyroidism)
pregnancy( due to fluid retention)
Amyloid disease
What are the symptoms and signs of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
------------------------------------------------------------
The onset is usually spontaneous with gradual increasing night pains which causes the patient to seek treatment:
1.Painful night tingling sensation of the fingers which can extend to the forearm-relieved by hanging the arm down or shaking
2.Parethesia and numbness of the index, middle and ring finger
3.Fingers feel clumsy
4.thenar muscle wasting and weakness may be present
5.impairment of light touch and pin prick sensation on the 3 middle fingers
6.women are more affected than men
What are the investigations required in Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
-------------------------------------------
1.Physical examination
Phalen's test-
flex wrists so that the dorsal surfaces of the hands are in full contact with each other, hold for 1 min: tingling and numbness in median nerve distribution
Reverse Phalen's test(prayer Sign)-
extend wrists so that the palms of hands are in full contact like in prayer, hold for 1 min: tingling and numbness in median nerve distribution
Tinel's test -
tap volar surface of the wrist:tingling means positive test
2.EMG - electromyography to test movement of the muscles
3.Nerve conduction tests on median nerve
What is the treatment of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
-----------------------------------------------------
1.Treat underlying conditions such as myxedema, polyarthritis,amyloid
2.diuretic in mild cases and those present in pregnant women
3.NSAIDS may reduce inflammation.
4.wrist splintage in extension
5.injection of the carpal tunnel with corticosteroid (avoiding the carpal nerve)
6.Surgical decompression by division of the transverse carpal ligament.
Results are usually good.
Showing posts with label surgery. Show all posts
Showing posts with label surgery. Show all posts
Monday, December 17, 2007
Thursday, October 11, 2007
A Simple Guide to Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
A Simple Guide to Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
-----------------------------------------------------------
What is Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
------------------------------------------------
Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (COLD) is a disease of the lungs characterised by the obstruction to the air flow in the airways of the lungs.
The narrowing of the airways together with distension of the air sacs beyond the terminal bronchioles with destruction of the alveolar walls over the course of many years damages the air sacs reducing the surface area left for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
As a result the patient become increasingly short of breath.
What is the cause of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-------------------------------------------------------------
Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease is associated with
1.Chronic bronchitis .
Chronic bronchitis is an ongoing inflammation of the lining of the breathing tubes (the bronchi), which is caused by bacterial infection or cigarette smoke irritation.
As the inflammation progresses, the bronchi fill up with mucus resulting in a chronic cough, as the body attempts to rid itself of the excess mucus that is irritating the lungs. The excess mucus in the bronchi also makes the diameter of the bronchi narrower and reduces the amount of air that can pass through. There is obstruction to air flow and hence breathlessness.
Smoking is the main culprit here.
2.Chronic asthma-
the narrowing of the airtubes caused by spasm of the muscles of the lining the airtubes triggered off by the allergens can cause permanent damage to the airtubes causing obstruction to airflow and hence difficulty in breathing.
3.Emphysema -
here the narrowing of the airway extends to the smaller airways or bronchioles with damage and overdistension of the air sacs resulting in obstruction and less air getting through to the lungs.
4.Chronic infection of the lungs like pneumoconiosis and tuberculosis may cause damage to the lungs with difficulty in breathing and poor air flow.
In all cases of the above conditions air flow is impeded and there is hyper inflation of the lungs.
What are the Symptoms of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
--------------------------------------------------------
Symptoms include:
1.Cough is usually the first symptom to develop.
It is usually a wet cough with phlegm(sputum).
Initially the cough is intermittent but becomes persistent as the condition progresses.
2. Excessive sputum or mucus is produced by the damaged airways.
This results in excessive production of phlegm
3.Chronic shortness of breath or shortness of breath occurs with mild exertion.
As the illness continues, breathlessness occurs even when sitting and can be very distressing to the patient.
4.There may even be breathing difficulty when lying down.
5.Wheezing may occur due to the sound of the air trying to squeeze through narrow airways.
6.Bluish coloration of the skin due to lack of oxygen
7.Dizziness can occur if the brain does not receive enough oxygen
8.Fatigue also occur when the body does not receive enough oxygen
Besides these main symptoms, other symptoms are:
1. Nasal flaring and bulging eyes
2.Vision abnormalities
3.Anxiety, stress, and tension
4.Ankle, feet, and leg swelling
5.Unintentional weight loss
6.Headache (especially in the morning)
7.Excessive daytime sleepiness
8.Insomnia
How is the diagnosis of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease made?
----------------------------------------------------------
1. medical history of cough, excessive sputum, breathlessness and their duration.
Any history of smoking,asthma, exposure to environmental toxins.
2. Physical examination for barrel-shaped chest and flattened diaphragm.
3. Pulmonary (lung) Function Testing-
this is a very important tool used to confirm COLD.
The patient is asked to into a machine called the spirometer which measures the amount of air the patient is able to blow out from his lungs.
The readings from the spirometer will confirm the diagnosis of COLD and assess the severity.
It is also used to monitor the patient's progress.
4. Chest X-ray is useful as an aid in the diagnosis of COLD(hyperinflated lungs and depressed diaphragm is typical).
It is also useful to rule out other conditions besides COLD.
It also detects any complications of COLD.
What is the Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-------------------------------------------------------
There is no cure for COLD.
Medications and lifestyle changes may help in the relief of symptoms and preventing the progression of the disease.
Lifestyle Changes:
1.Stop Smoking is the most important step for a COLD sufferer.
While the damage to to the lungs cannot be reversed, stopping smoking will help prevent the progression of the condition.
2. Avoid air pollution and second hand smoke in the workplace and wear a mask if the air pollution index is high
3.Pulmonary Rehabilation- this involved a structured programme which includes education, exercise training,psychosocial support and instruction proper breathing techniques.
Benefits include improvement in the ability to exercise, reduced breathlessness and fatigue resulting in improvement in the quality of life.
4.Nutrition- eat a well balanced diet.
If chewing and swallowing interfere withbreathing, take small frequent meals.
5. Rest, meditation,adequate sleep are factors which will help improve your quality of life.
Medications:
1.Bronchodilators are medicines that relax the muscles aound the airways in your lungs, It opens the airways allowing air flow in and out of the lungs to improve. Bronchodilators may be taken orally or in inhalers.
2. Corticosteroids helps reduce airway inflammation and decrease the mucus production. Again these medicines can be taken orally or in inhalers.
Side effects are less with inhalers.
3. Antibiotics are taken to treat any underlying infection.
4. Vaccinations:
a.Yearly influenza vaccination is given if there is a higher risk of pneunomia if you suffer from influenza.
b.Pneumoccal vaccination for protection against pneumococcal infection.
Oxygen Therapy:Those wth severe symptoms may benefit from a regime of oxygen therapy for at least 15 hours a day.
Surgery:
Sometime removal of section of lung which has collapsed may improve symptoms. Sometimes a few may be considered for lung transplantation.
What are the Complications of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-----------------------------------------------------------
Most patients ends up with pneumonia and death because of the chronic progression of the disease.
-----------------------------------------------------------
What is Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
------------------------------------------------
Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (COLD) is a disease of the lungs characterised by the obstruction to the air flow in the airways of the lungs.
The narrowing of the airways together with distension of the air sacs beyond the terminal bronchioles with destruction of the alveolar walls over the course of many years damages the air sacs reducing the surface area left for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
As a result the patient become increasingly short of breath.
What is the cause of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-------------------------------------------------------------
Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease is associated with
1.Chronic bronchitis .
Chronic bronchitis is an ongoing inflammation of the lining of the breathing tubes (the bronchi), which is caused by bacterial infection or cigarette smoke irritation.
As the inflammation progresses, the bronchi fill up with mucus resulting in a chronic cough, as the body attempts to rid itself of the excess mucus that is irritating the lungs. The excess mucus in the bronchi also makes the diameter of the bronchi narrower and reduces the amount of air that can pass through. There is obstruction to air flow and hence breathlessness.
Smoking is the main culprit here.
2.Chronic asthma-
the narrowing of the airtubes caused by spasm of the muscles of the lining the airtubes triggered off by the allergens can cause permanent damage to the airtubes causing obstruction to airflow and hence difficulty in breathing.
3.Emphysema -
here the narrowing of the airway extends to the smaller airways or bronchioles with damage and overdistension of the air sacs resulting in obstruction and less air getting through to the lungs.
4.Chronic infection of the lungs like pneumoconiosis and tuberculosis may cause damage to the lungs with difficulty in breathing and poor air flow.
In all cases of the above conditions air flow is impeded and there is hyper inflation of the lungs.
What are the Symptoms of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
--------------------------------------------------------
Symptoms include:
1.Cough is usually the first symptom to develop.
It is usually a wet cough with phlegm(sputum).
Initially the cough is intermittent but becomes persistent as the condition progresses.
2. Excessive sputum or mucus is produced by the damaged airways.
This results in excessive production of phlegm
3.Chronic shortness of breath or shortness of breath occurs with mild exertion.
As the illness continues, breathlessness occurs even when sitting and can be very distressing to the patient.
4.There may even be breathing difficulty when lying down.
5.Wheezing may occur due to the sound of the air trying to squeeze through narrow airways.
6.Bluish coloration of the skin due to lack of oxygen
7.Dizziness can occur if the brain does not receive enough oxygen
8.Fatigue also occur when the body does not receive enough oxygen
Besides these main symptoms, other symptoms are:
1. Nasal flaring and bulging eyes
2.Vision abnormalities
3.Anxiety, stress, and tension
4.Ankle, feet, and leg swelling
5.Unintentional weight loss
6.Headache (especially in the morning)
7.Excessive daytime sleepiness
8.Insomnia
How is the diagnosis of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease made?
----------------------------------------------------------
1. medical history of cough, excessive sputum, breathlessness and their duration.
Any history of smoking,asthma, exposure to environmental toxins.
2. Physical examination for barrel-shaped chest and flattened diaphragm.
3. Pulmonary (lung) Function Testing-
this is a very important tool used to confirm COLD.
The patient is asked to into a machine called the spirometer which measures the amount of air the patient is able to blow out from his lungs.
The readings from the spirometer will confirm the diagnosis of COLD and assess the severity.
It is also used to monitor the patient's progress.
4. Chest X-ray is useful as an aid in the diagnosis of COLD(hyperinflated lungs and depressed diaphragm is typical).
It is also useful to rule out other conditions besides COLD.
It also detects any complications of COLD.
What is the Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-------------------------------------------------------
There is no cure for COLD.
Medications and lifestyle changes may help in the relief of symptoms and preventing the progression of the disease.
Lifestyle Changes:
1.Stop Smoking is the most important step for a COLD sufferer.
While the damage to to the lungs cannot be reversed, stopping smoking will help prevent the progression of the condition.
2. Avoid air pollution and second hand smoke in the workplace and wear a mask if the air pollution index is high
3.Pulmonary Rehabilation- this involved a structured programme which includes education, exercise training,psychosocial support and instruction proper breathing techniques.
Benefits include improvement in the ability to exercise, reduced breathlessness and fatigue resulting in improvement in the quality of life.
4.Nutrition- eat a well balanced diet.
If chewing and swallowing interfere withbreathing, take small frequent meals.
5. Rest, meditation,adequate sleep are factors which will help improve your quality of life.
Medications:
1.Bronchodilators are medicines that relax the muscles aound the airways in your lungs, It opens the airways allowing air flow in and out of the lungs to improve. Bronchodilators may be taken orally or in inhalers.
2. Corticosteroids helps reduce airway inflammation and decrease the mucus production. Again these medicines can be taken orally or in inhalers.
Side effects are less with inhalers.
3. Antibiotics are taken to treat any underlying infection.
4. Vaccinations:
a.Yearly influenza vaccination is given if there is a higher risk of pneunomia if you suffer from influenza.
b.Pneumoccal vaccination for protection against pneumococcal infection.
Oxygen Therapy:Those wth severe symptoms may benefit from a regime of oxygen therapy for at least 15 hours a day.
Surgery:
Sometime removal of section of lung which has collapsed may improve symptoms. Sometimes a few may be considered for lung transplantation.
What are the Complications of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease?
-----------------------------------------------------------
Most patients ends up with pneumonia and death because of the chronic progression of the disease.
Many if treated are able to live a long time before succumbing to pneumonia.
Other advice:
Air travel may be possible if the doctor deem that you are fit to travel.
Sometimes arrangement for oxygen and medications during the air flight may be necessary.
Wednesday, October 10, 2007
A Simple Guide to Endometriosis
A Simple Guide to Endometriosis
---------------------------------------
What is Endometriosis ?
----------------------------
Endometriosis is a disorder of the endometrial tissues (which line a woman's uterus) in which these tissues are implanted in places outside the uterus, usually in other parts of the pelvic cavity and abdomen.
However, in women with Endometriosis, blood from the implanted endometrial tissue is trapped inside, becomes inflamed, and develops into scar tissue.
Because of this inflammation, severe pain, infertility and bowel problems occur.
What are the Causes of Endometriosis?
----------------------------------------------
The cause of endometriosis is still not known.
There are a few theories:
1.during menstruation, some of the menstrual tissue is pushed back through the fallopian tubes into the abdomen where it implants and grows.
2.it may be due to a genetic process
3.certain families are predisposed to endometriosis:
Higher socioeconomic groups
women who marry late and have no or few children
4.Stress may constrict the opening of the uterus .
Some endometrial tissues are pushed backward into the abdominal cavity instead of through the opening of the uterus
What are the Symptoms of Endometriosis?
--------------------------------------------------
Endometriosis occurs usually years after the periods begin.
Symptoms may worsen as the endometrial area increases in size.
However after menopause, the implanted tissue shrinks away and the symptoms subside.
Common symptoms include:
Severe menstrual cramps
Pelvic pain apart from menstrual periods
Diarrhoea or painful bowel movements during menses
Menstrual irreuglarities
Menorrhagia
Painful intercourse
Backache
Pain with exercise
Painful pelvic exams
Painful and frequent urination
Bloating
Constipation
Fatigue
How do you made the Diagnosis of Endometriosis ?
------------------------------------------------------------
A diagnosis can only be made via laparoscopy.
A laparoscope is a tube with a light in it which is inserted through a small incision in the navel area. The misplaced endometrial tissue can then be found and the location, extent and size of the endometriosis detected.
What is the Treatment for Endometriosis?
----------------------------------------------------------
There is no cure for endometriosis.
If the symptoms are mild, only medication for pain is required.
Treatment depends on the size, extent of the lesions, age of the patient and the desire for pregnancy.
If these women want to be pregnant, the best course of action is to have a trial period of unprotected intercourse for 6 months to 1 year.
Once pregnancy occur, the endometriosis will cleared by itself because there is no menses for nine months. Whether the endometriosis will recur after delivery depends on the patient. Most patients do not have a recurrence.
If the patient is not seeking pregnancy and where specific treatment of the endometriosis is required, hormone suppression treatment may be tried. This prevents ovulation and less endometrial tissue is formed. Because of this the endometriosis may reduced resulting in less symptoms. A course of treatment may last 6 months.
Where hormone suppression therapy do not work, some patients may require surgical treatment to remove the endometriosis tissue in the abdomen.
In severe cases, where the uterus and ovaries are affected, removal by surgery of the uterus and/or ovaries is required especially in those nearing menopause or who do not wish to be pregnant.
Saturday, October 6, 2007
A Simple Guide to Cancer
A Simple Guide to Cancer
------------------------------
A person's body is made up of many types of cells which normally grow, divide and die. Sometimes, the cells mutate (change to abnormal cells) and begin to grow and divide more quickly than normal cells.
Rather than dying, these abnormal cells clump together to form tumors.
If these tumors are cancerous (also called "malignant"), the cancer cells can invade and kill your body's own healthy tissues becoming a "villian" in the process.
By contrast, noncancerous tumors (also called "benign") do not spread to other parts of the body.
What are the dangers of Cancer?
--------------------------------------
Normal healthy cells grow and multiply in an orderly, controlled manner.
Cancer cells on the other hand multiply uncontrollably.
They do not function normally and instead form a growth or tumour which can enter the blood and spread to nearby tissues and organs as well as to other parts of the body.
Cancer kills by:
Destroying important organs
Disturbing normal body functions
Blocking important blood vessels or air passages.
Cancer is really a group of diseases. There are many types of cancer which can arise from the different types of cells in the body.
What are the most common cancers?
--------------------------------------------
MOST COMMON TYPES OF CANCER IN THE WORLD ARE:
Lung
Colon & rectum(large intestine)
Breast
Ovary
Stomach
Cervix(neck of the womb)
Liver
Prostate
Nasopharynx(back of the nose)
Lymphomas
What are the causes of Cancer?
-------------------------------------
1. Genetic -family history,chromosonal abnormality
2. Viruses & Bacteria -hepatitis B, Epstein Barr, HIV : Helicobacter pyrori
3. Smoking - chemicals from cigarette smoke
4. Alcohol - liver cirrhosis
5. Chemicals -pesticides, asbestos,preservatives,chemotherapy, aflatoxins
6. Radiation -from sun rays, x-rays, radiotherapy,nuclear plants
7. Obesity - fat can cause breast, ovarian cancer
8. Age - mutations increase with age
How can you prevent yourself from cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
Cancer can be prevented.
Cancer is not contagious like the flu or chickenpox.
About one-third of all cancers can be prevented from occurring:
1. A healthy lifestyle
------------------------
get some exercise, a well balanced diet and avoid stress.
2. Smoking
-------------
avoid cigarettes and cigarette smoke.
Smoking also causes cancers of the mouth, throat, larynx , oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, kidney and bladder.
Breathing in other people's smoke can increase your risk of developing lung cancer, so ask any smokers not to smoke in your presence.
What you can do
Don't smoke.
If you do, then stop.
Ask your family and friends to support your efforts to quit.
Get rid of all your cigarettes and lighters.
Enrol in a programme that helps smokers to quit.
Spend less time with friends who smoke.
Spend more time with non-smoking friends in smoke-free places.
There are chewing gum and skin patches with nicotine to help you to stop smoking.
3.Food and chemicals
--------------------------
avoid any cancer causing chemicals such as asbestos or nitrosamines from preserved food.
The chemicals used to preserve foods like ham, bacon, luncheon meat may form cancer-causing substances when they are digested.
These substances have also been found in salted or preserved foods (such as salted fish or pickled vegetables) and may lead to cancer of the stomach and nasopharynx.
Eat them less often.
Peanuts, seeds and grains that are not stored properly often become mouldy.
Some of these moulds produce toxins(aflatoxins) that can cause liver cancer.
What you can do:
1.Have some fresh fruits and vegetables at every meal. Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins and fibre which help to reduce the risk of developing colorectal and stomach cancer.
Choose dark-green leafy vegetables and orange-yellow fruits as these contain greater amounts of vitamins and minerals.
2.Take more fibre by eating wholemeal bread or wholegrain cereals such as brown rice.
3.Eat less salted, pickled, preserved and processed foods.
Store nuts in air-tight containers to prevent them from going mouldy.
4.Obesity
-----------
People who are overweight are more likely to develop cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate.
What you can do
Exercise regularly .
To maintain a healthy weight, take up a regular exercise or sport.
Aim to stay in the healthy weight range.
Exercise for at least 20 minutes three times a week.
Play a game or sport that you enjoy and can do with your friends or family.
Eat less foods high in fat or sugar.
Trim away fat from meat and skin from poultry before cooking.
Change to foods low in fat like skimmed milk, reduced fat cheese or low-fat yoghurt.
Use low-fat cooking methods like stewing, baking, steaming or boiling instead of deep frying.
Choose healthier snacks like fresh fruit or wholemeal crackers.
5.Radiation
--------------
radiation from sun, x-rays, nuclear plants can cause damage to the skin,bones and other organs of the body resulting in cancer.
What you can do
Avoid sunburn and prevent overexposure to the sun.
The ultraviolet rays from the sun damage the skin.
Sunburn may lead to skin cancer.
Avoid overexposure to the sun, especially if you are fair-skinned.
Stay in the shade whenever possible.
Wear a hat or a cap.
Use a sunscreen or sunblock with a sun protection factor of at least 15 on any exposed areas of skin.
6. Workplace chemicals
----------------------------
exposure to cancer-causing substances at work can lead to cancer of lungs, liver, kidneys, skin. Always follow the safety regulations as they are meant to protect you.
What you can do
Hide behind protective shields or stay in the "safe" area.
Remember to wear protective equipment (like gloves, masks or goggles).
Be careful when you handle the equipment or the chemicals.
Learn about safety drills and what to do in case of emergencies.
6.Alcohol
-----------
People who frequently drink large amounts of alcohol are likely to develop liver cancer.
They are also at risk of developing cancer of the mouth, throat and oesophagus .
What you can do
Limit yourself to not more than two standard drinks a day.
One standard drink is roughly equal to:
One can of beer(285 mls)
One glass of wine (120 mls)
One measure of spirits(30 mls)
Alternate your drinks with non-alcoholic ones.
Drink them slowly so they last longer.
How to screen for Cancer:
-------------------------------
Mneumonics for Warning Signs of Cancer
-------------------------------------------------
Be on the alert for: CANCERS
1.Changes in bowel or bladder
2.A lump in breast or elsewhere
3.Nagging cough, hoarseness,
4.Changes in the size, shape or colour of a mole on the skin
5.Extraordinary bleeding from the nose or any other part of the body, and blood in the stools.
6.Reccuring Indigestion
7.Sore or an ulcer anywhere on the body, including the mouth, which does not heal properly.
Look out for these early warning signs and let your doctor know.
What you can do
Inform your doctor about it right away.
He can examine you and do some tests to find out if your problem is serious.
Regular breast self examination (BSE) helps to detect breast cancer at a stage when it can still be treated and even cured.
Learn how to do BSE properly and then do it every month.
See your doctor for a breast examination once every two years.
Women over 40 should see their doctor once a year.
Mammograms are special X-rays of the breasts to look for lumps.
They are usually recommended for women over 50.
Certain medical conditions may increase your risk of developing some cancers.
Examples are people who are carriers of the Hepatitis B virus are more likely to develop liver cancer.
Some cancers (like breast and colorectal cancers) tend to run in families.
If your parents, brothers or sisters have had cancer, discuss it with your doctor.
If you have any risks of cancer, the doctor can tell you what steps you can take to reduce your risk of developing cancer.
He may recommend some screening tests to help determine your risk for developing the same cancer.
In fact, about one-third of all cancers can be cured if they are detected and treated early enough.
Recognising the early warning signs and going for regular check-ups can save your life if cancer strikes.
What are the Treatment of Cancers ?
-------------------------------------------
------------------------------
This is a summary of all the articles that I have done on the different types of Cancer.
There is a common thread which runs through all the articles such as the risk factors, causes and treatments.
What is Cancer?
-------------------
A normal cell can be compared to a "hero" because it saves the body by repairing any damage or injury to the tissues of the body.A person's body is made up of many types of cells which normally grow, divide and die. Sometimes, the cells mutate (change to abnormal cells) and begin to grow and divide more quickly than normal cells.
Rather than dying, these abnormal cells clump together to form tumors.
If these tumors are cancerous (also called "malignant"), the cancer cells can invade and kill your body's own healthy tissues becoming a "villian" in the process.
By contrast, noncancerous tumors (also called "benign") do not spread to other parts of the body.
What are the dangers of Cancer?
--------------------------------------
Normal healthy cells grow and multiply in an orderly, controlled manner.
Cancer cells on the other hand multiply uncontrollably.
They do not function normally and instead form a growth or tumour which can enter the blood and spread to nearby tissues and organs as well as to other parts of the body.
Cancer kills by:
Destroying important organs
Disturbing normal body functions
Blocking important blood vessels or air passages.
Cancer is really a group of diseases. There are many types of cancer which can arise from the different types of cells in the body.
What are the most common cancers?
--------------------------------------------
MOST COMMON TYPES OF CANCER IN THE WORLD ARE:
Lung
Colon & rectum(large intestine)
Breast
Ovary
Stomach
Cervix(neck of the womb)
Liver
Prostate
Nasopharynx(back of the nose)
Lymphomas
What are the causes of Cancer?
-------------------------------------
1. Genetic -family history,chromosonal abnormality
2. Viruses & Bacteria -hepatitis B, Epstein Barr, HIV : Helicobacter pyrori
3. Smoking - chemicals from cigarette smoke
4. Alcohol - liver cirrhosis
5. Chemicals -pesticides, asbestos,preservatives,chemotherapy, aflatoxins
6. Radiation -from sun rays, x-rays, radiotherapy,nuclear plants
7. Obesity - fat can cause breast, ovarian cancer
8. Age - mutations increase with age
How can you prevent yourself from cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
Cancer can be prevented.
Cancer is not contagious like the flu or chickenpox.
About one-third of all cancers can be prevented from occurring:
1. A healthy lifestyle
------------------------
get some exercise, a well balanced diet and avoid stress.
2. Smoking
-------------
avoid cigarettes and cigarette smoke.
Cigarette smoke contains about 40 different cancer-causing substances.
Almost all of those who develop lung cancer are smokers.Smoking also causes cancers of the mouth, throat, larynx , oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, kidney and bladder.
Breathing in other people's smoke can increase your risk of developing lung cancer, so ask any smokers not to smoke in your presence.
What you can do
Don't smoke.
If you do, then stop.
Ask your family and friends to support your efforts to quit.
Get rid of all your cigarettes and lighters.
Enrol in a programme that helps smokers to quit.
Spend less time with friends who smoke.
Spend more time with non-smoking friends in smoke-free places.
There are chewing gum and skin patches with nicotine to help you to stop smoking.
3.Food and chemicals
--------------------------
avoid any cancer causing chemicals such as asbestos or nitrosamines from preserved food.
The chemicals used to preserve foods like ham, bacon, luncheon meat may form cancer-causing substances when they are digested.
These substances have also been found in salted or preserved foods (such as salted fish or pickled vegetables) and may lead to cancer of the stomach and nasopharynx.
Eat them less often.
Peanuts, seeds and grains that are not stored properly often become mouldy.
Some of these moulds produce toxins(aflatoxins) that can cause liver cancer.
What you can do:
1.Have some fresh fruits and vegetables at every meal. Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins and fibre which help to reduce the risk of developing colorectal and stomach cancer.
Choose dark-green leafy vegetables and orange-yellow fruits as these contain greater amounts of vitamins and minerals.
2.Take more fibre by eating wholemeal bread or wholegrain cereals such as brown rice.
3.Eat less salted, pickled, preserved and processed foods.
Store nuts in air-tight containers to prevent them from going mouldy.
4.Obesity
-----------
People who are overweight are more likely to develop cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate.
What you can do
Exercise regularly .
To maintain a healthy weight, take up a regular exercise or sport.
Aim to stay in the healthy weight range.
Exercise for at least 20 minutes three times a week.
Play a game or sport that you enjoy and can do with your friends or family.
Eat less foods high in fat or sugar.
Trim away fat from meat and skin from poultry before cooking.
Change to foods low in fat like skimmed milk, reduced fat cheese or low-fat yoghurt.
Use low-fat cooking methods like stewing, baking, steaming or boiling instead of deep frying.
Choose healthier snacks like fresh fruit or wholemeal crackers.
5.Radiation
--------------
radiation from sun, x-rays, nuclear plants can cause damage to the skin,bones and other organs of the body resulting in cancer.
What you can do
Avoid sunburn and prevent overexposure to the sun.
The ultraviolet rays from the sun damage the skin.
Sunburn may lead to skin cancer.
Avoid overexposure to the sun, especially if you are fair-skinned.
Stay in the shade whenever possible.
Wear a hat or a cap.
Use a sunscreen or sunblock with a sun protection factor of at least 15 on any exposed areas of skin.
6. Workplace chemicals
----------------------------
exposure to cancer-causing substances at work can lead to cancer of lungs, liver, kidneys, skin. Always follow the safety regulations as they are meant to protect you.
What you can do
Hide behind protective shields or stay in the "safe" area.
Remember to wear protective equipment (like gloves, masks or goggles).
Be careful when you handle the equipment or the chemicals.
Learn about safety drills and what to do in case of emergencies.
6.Alcohol
-----------
People who frequently drink large amounts of alcohol are likely to develop liver cancer.
They are also at risk of developing cancer of the mouth, throat and oesophagus .
What you can do
Limit yourself to not more than two standard drinks a day.
One standard drink is roughly equal to:
One can of beer(285 mls)
One glass of wine (120 mls)
One measure of spirits(30 mls)
Alternate your drinks with non-alcoholic ones.
Drink them slowly so they last longer.
How to screen for Cancer:
-------------------------------
Mneumonics for Warning Signs of Cancer
-------------------------------------------------
Be on the alert for: CANCERS
1.Changes in bowel or bladder
2.A lump in breast or elsewhere
3.Nagging cough, hoarseness,
4.Changes in the size, shape or colour of a mole on the skin
5.Extraordinary bleeding from the nose or any other part of the body, and blood in the stools.
6.Reccuring Indigestion
7.Sore or an ulcer anywhere on the body, including the mouth, which does not heal properly.
Look out for these early warning signs and let your doctor know.
What you can do
Inform your doctor about it right away.
He can examine you and do some tests to find out if your problem is serious.
Regular breast self examination (BSE) helps to detect breast cancer at a stage when it can still be treated and even cured.
Learn how to do BSE properly and then do it every month.
See your doctor for a breast examination once every two years.
Women over 40 should see their doctor once a year.
Mammograms are special X-rays of the breasts to look for lumps.
They are usually recommended for women over 50.
Regular Pap Smears at least once in 2 years should be done for women who are sexually active. A Pap smear is a simple, quick and painless test that detects cervical cancer at an early stage when it has a good chance of cure.
Women infected with certain sexually transmitted diseases have a higher chance of getting cervical cancer.
Speak to your doctor about your personal and family medical history of cancer.Certain medical conditions may increase your risk of developing some cancers.
Examples are people who are carriers of the Hepatitis B virus are more likely to develop liver cancer.
Some cancers (like breast and colorectal cancers) tend to run in families.
If your parents, brothers or sisters have had cancer, discuss it with your doctor.
If you have any risks of cancer, the doctor can tell you what steps you can take to reduce your risk of developing cancer.
He may recommend some screening tests to help determine your risk for developing the same cancer.
In fact, about one-third of all cancers can be cured if they are detected and treated early enough.
Recognising the early warning signs and going for regular check-ups can save your life if cancer strikes.
What are the Treatment of Cancers ?
-------------------------------------------
Basic treatments for cancer are traditionally surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
However with the advancement of medical treatment, there are more choices of treatments.
Surgery - is still the mainstay of cancer treatment in the early stages and other stages except for leukemia, nasopharyngeal and some rare cancer.
Radiotherapy-standard, intensity modulated radiotherapy, stereotactic radiotherapy, interventional radiotherapy.
Radiotherapy is used particularly in nasopharyngeal cancer, brain cancer and in conjuction with surgery. It can be curative as well as palliative( help to relieve pain)
Chemotherapy - standard,molecular targetted therapy is fast becoming the choice for many cancers because of newer drugs with lesser effects and more effective than before.
Hormonotherapy - espcially for breast,ovary,uterine,prostate, testicular cancer
Immunotherapy - immune systems are boosted with vaccines against certain viruses such as HPV(Human Papilloma Virus)
Stem cells - can help in replacing killed cancer cells with normal cells usually used in conjunction with chemotherapy
Bone marrow transplant - similar to stem cells therapy
Organ transplant especially in liver cancer
Other ways of treatments:
Healthy life style will help to strengthen the patient during the cancer treatment
Well balanced Diet will also help to improve the healing process
Meditation and avoidance of stress reduce the reduced immunity of patients and pyschological effect of cancer treatment
Finally:
Cancer can be cured.
Many people are afraid of cancer because they think it is incurable.
In fact, about one-third of all cancers can be cured if they are detected and treated early enough.
Modern medicine has also improved the survival rates of most cancers.
Thursday, September 27, 2007
A Simple Guide to Stomach Cancer
A Simple Guide to Stomach Cancer
----------------
What is Stomach Cancer?
-----------------
Stomach cancer (also called “gastric cancer”) is the growth of abnormal cells in the lining and wall of the stomach which mutates and proliferates giving rise to the stomach cancer .
Stomach Cancer can spread to the surrounding organs like liver,pancreas and colon.
Once in the blood stream it can spread to the brain, bones and kidneys.
Who is at risk of getting Stomach Cancer?
-------------------------------------------------
1. Chronic Helicobacter pylori bacteria infection. This bacteria is found in the stomach and has been found to cause gastric ulcers and stomach cancer.
2. family history of stomach cancer
3. frequent consumption of preserved or smoked food such as salted vegetables,fish,meat. Cancer causing nitrosamines are released when these food are cooked.
4.previous stomach surgery with partial removal of stomach (gastric ulcers or polyps)
5. Pernicious anaemia- a rare blood disorder affecting the red blood cells
6. Smoking
7. Men are affected more than women
8. Age above 50 years of age
9.People with blood group A has a higher incidence
What are the symptoms of Stomach Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------
In the early stages, stomach cancer may have no symptoms.
As it spread it can cause the following symptoms:
1.Indigestion, stomach discomfort or heartburn
2.A fullness feeling or bloating after eating a small meal
3. loss of appetite
4.Nausea or belching
5. Feeling tired
When the cancer is larger, it can cause the following symptoms:
1.Stomach pain
2.Vomiting
3.Blood in your stool or black tarry stools
4.Unexplained weight loss
5.pallour due to anaemia from loss of blood
Many of these symptoms can be caused by other conditions besides cancer.
So the earlier stomach cancer is found, the better are the chances of it being cured.
How do you diagnose Stomach Cancer?
----------------------------------------------
1.medical history and complete physical exam.
2.Abdominal X-ray for any other condition in the abdomen causing pain or swelling in the abdomen
3.Gastroscopy:
a thin, lighted tube is put into your mouth and passed down to your stomach.
4.Biopsy:
During gastrocopy, a small piece of your suspicious stomach tissue is taken to check for cancer cells. This is called a biopsy sample which is then examined under a microscope for cancer cells.
How is stomach cancer treated?
-------------------------------------
Treatment for stomach cancer may include surgery, chemotherapy or radiation therapy, or a combination of these treatments. The choice of treatment depends on whether the cancer is just in the stomach or if it has spread to other places in the body. A person’s age and overall health will also affect the choice of treatment.
Surgery
Surgery is still the best form of treatment for stomach cancer.
For smaller cancers -partial removal of the stomach is done.
In early stages cure rate is about 90%.
For later stages of cancer, the whole stomach including the spleen and surrounding tissues may be removed.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is used in conjunction with surgery in later stges of cancer.
Radiotherapy:
Radiation can help to kill the cancer cells surrounding the stomach cancer as well as to relieve pain.
Can I prevent stomach cancer?
------------------------------------
There is no way to prevent stomach cancer.
However, you can help reduce your risk of getting stomach cancer by:
Living a healthy lifestyle
Not drinking a lot of alcohol or smoking.
Avoid preserved food
Treat H.pyrori infections of the stomach early.
Eat a diet high in fresh fruits and vegetables, and vitamin C.
Vitamin C is found in foods such as oranges, grapefruit and broccoli.
AS IN ALL CANCERS, EARLY DETECTION IS THE BEST CURE!!
----------------
What is Stomach Cancer?
-----------------
Stomach cancer (also called “gastric cancer”) is the growth of abnormal cells in the lining and wall of the stomach which mutates and proliferates giving rise to the stomach cancer .
Stomach Cancer can spread to the surrounding organs like liver,pancreas and colon.
Once in the blood stream it can spread to the brain, bones and kidneys.
Who is at risk of getting Stomach Cancer?
-------------------------------------------------
1. Chronic Helicobacter pylori bacteria infection. This bacteria is found in the stomach and has been found to cause gastric ulcers and stomach cancer.
2. family history of stomach cancer
3. frequent consumption of preserved or smoked food such as salted vegetables,fish,meat. Cancer causing nitrosamines are released when these food are cooked.
4.previous stomach surgery with partial removal of stomach (gastric ulcers or polyps)
5. Pernicious anaemia- a rare blood disorder affecting the red blood cells
6. Smoking
7. Men are affected more than women
8. Age above 50 years of age
9.People with blood group A has a higher incidence
What are the symptoms of Stomach Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------
In the early stages, stomach cancer may have no symptoms.
As it spread it can cause the following symptoms:
1.Indigestion, stomach discomfort or heartburn
2.A fullness feeling or bloating after eating a small meal
3. loss of appetite
4.Nausea or belching
5. Feeling tired
When the cancer is larger, it can cause the following symptoms:
1.Stomach pain
2.Vomiting
3.Blood in your stool or black tarry stools
4.Unexplained weight loss
5.pallour due to anaemia from loss of blood
Many of these symptoms can be caused by other conditions besides cancer.
So the earlier stomach cancer is found, the better are the chances of it being cured.
How do you diagnose Stomach Cancer?
----------------------------------------------
1.medical history and complete physical exam.
2.Abdominal X-ray for any other condition in the abdomen causing pain or swelling in the abdomen
3.Gastroscopy:
a thin, lighted tube is put into your mouth and passed down to your stomach.
4.Biopsy:
During gastrocopy, a small piece of your suspicious stomach tissue is taken to check for cancer cells. This is called a biopsy sample which is then examined under a microscope for cancer cells.
How is stomach cancer treated?
-------------------------------------
Treatment for stomach cancer may include surgery, chemotherapy or radiation therapy, or a combination of these treatments. The choice of treatment depends on whether the cancer is just in the stomach or if it has spread to other places in the body. A person’s age and overall health will also affect the choice of treatment.
Surgery
Surgery is still the best form of treatment for stomach cancer.
For smaller cancers -partial removal of the stomach is done.
In early stages cure rate is about 90%.
For later stages of cancer, the whole stomach including the spleen and surrounding tissues may be removed.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is used in conjunction with surgery in later stges of cancer.
Radiotherapy:
Radiation can help to kill the cancer cells surrounding the stomach cancer as well as to relieve pain.
Can I prevent stomach cancer?
------------------------------------
There is no way to prevent stomach cancer.
However, you can help reduce your risk of getting stomach cancer by:
Living a healthy lifestyle
Not drinking a lot of alcohol or smoking.
Avoid preserved food
Treat H.pyrori infections of the stomach early.
Eat a diet high in fresh fruits and vegetables, and vitamin C.
Vitamin C is found in foods such as oranges, grapefruit and broccoli.
AS IN ALL CANCERS, EARLY DETECTION IS THE BEST CURE!!
Tuesday, September 25, 2007
A Simple Guide to Bladder Cancer
A Simple Guide to Bladder Cancer
-----------------
What is Bladder Cancer?
-----------------
Bladder cancer is a growth of abnormal cells forming a malignant tumour in the bladder. Most bladder cancers start in the inner lining of the bladder.
What are the different types of Bladder Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
There are 2 main types of Bladder Cancer:
1.superficial cancer
the cancer is contained on the inner lining of the bladder.
They may occur as a small, wart-like growths on the inside of the bladder, which can be removed in a simple operation and usually will never recur.
2.invasive cancer
where the cancer has spread into the muscle wall of the bladder.
Examples are:
a.large growth in the muscle wall of the bladder, which requires major surgery to remove.
b.mushroom-like growths( papillary cancers)on the inside lining of the bladder. They have a short stem attached to the lining of the bladder and can spread into the wall of the bladder.
Treatment is different for these two types of bladder cancer.
What are the causes of Bladder Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
There are a few factors which increase the risk of getting bladder cancer:
1.Smoking
chemicals in a cigarette have been found to contribute to bladder cancer. The more cigarettes smoked, the greater the risk.
2.Exposure to harmful, cancer-causing chemicals
Certain chemicals at the workplace, for example, those used in dye factories, rubber, gasworks, plastics and other chemical industries, can cause a higher risk of contracting bladder cancer in workers.
It can take about 25 years after exposure to these chemicals before bladder cancer develops.These chemicals may have been banned in some countries.
3.Frequent bouts of cystitis
Cystitis caused by repeated bacterial infections and bladder stones can lead to the development of bladder cancer.
4.Age and Gender
Bladder cancer occurs mostly among people aged between 50 - 70 years.
It is twice as common in men as in women.
It is rare in people below age 40.
What are the symptoms of Bladder Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
The most common symptom is
1.blood in the urine which usually occurs suddenly and is generally not painful.
The blood may not be present constantly but eventually it does recur.
In some cases, blood clots can form and these may cause painful muscle spasms in the bladder. The amount of blood present is however not related to the extent of the cancer.
2. burning feeling when they pass urine.
3. frequency of urination.
While these are also symptoms of bladder irritation, further tests would be necessary if they persist and do not clear with antibiotics.
How can Bladder Cancer be treated?
------------------------------------------
The treatment for bladder cancer depends on the type of cancer, the stage and grade.
It also depends on the health of the patient.
Superficial cancers:
Superficial cancers, which can be single or multiple, are usually removed using a cystoscope. Anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapy or immunotherapy) may be instilled into the bladder to try to prevent the cancer recurring.
Invasive cancers
the options are as follows:
Surgery
The most common treatment method is surgery to remove a part of the bladder.
A new bladder is sometimes constructed if it has to be removed.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy may be used instead of surgery to avoid removal of the bladder. Radiotherapy may also be used before surgery in cases of large tumours to facilitate the tumour removal or if there is a high risk of cancer cells left behind after surgery.
Chemotherapy
In some cases, chemotherapy is given before surgery or radiotherapy to shrink the tumour so that it can be treated more effectively. Chemotherapy is also applied after surgery to reduce the recurrence of the tumour.The drug can be instilled into the bladder to maximise contact with the cancer cells.
Once the cancer has spread outside the bladder, the main treatment is chemotherapy.
Removal of bladder
------------------------
In a small proportion of people with bladder cancer, the bladder may completely removed.
The surgeon will then give the patients an urostomy - an artificial opening from the urinary tract.The opening is usually formed on the abdomen, to the right of the navel. Wrinkles, scars and prominent underlying bones must be avoided, as placing the opening near them may cause problems with leakage later on.
Ensure that the bag is emptied and changed as often as necessary.
At first the opening will be slightly swollen.
It may take several weeks for it to reduce to its normal size.
There may also be mucus (a thick white substance) from the opening. The amount of mucus will gradually reduce over time but will never disappear completely.
Most people with an urostomy live a normal life. Many return to their jobs and take up their favourite pastimes again, including swimming.
Now with advancement of plastic surgery a new bladder can be constructed easily and the days of urostomy may be over.
Monday, September 24, 2007
A Simple Guide to Ovarian Cancer
A Simple Guide to Ovarian Cancer
--------------
What is Ovarian Cancer?
----------------
--------------
What is Ovarian Cancer?
----------------
Ovarian Cancer is a disease which cause abnormal cells in the ovary to proliferate and spread to the rest of the ovary or outside the ovary.
What are the different types of Ovarian Cancer?
-------------------------------------------------
Most experts group ovarian cancers within three major categories, according to the kind of cells from which they were formed:
1.epithelial tumors arise from cells that line or cover the ovaries;
2.germ cell tumors originate from cells that are destined to form eggs within the ovaries; and
3.sex cord-stromal cell tumors begin in the connective cells that hold the ovaries together and produce female hormones.
The most common type, the epithelial carcinoma, that begins from the surface of the ovary is discussed here.
Who is at risk of Ovarian Cancer?
---------------------------------------
The cause of cancer of the ovary is unknown.
However, studies show that certain factors may increase the chance of developing this disease. 1.family history of ovarian cancer.
2.history of cancer of the breast or colon.
3.age over 60 years.
4. Infertility or not having children. The more children you have, the lesser your risk is.
5.Early menstruation before the age of 12
6.late menopause
7.high fat diet
8.Use of fertility drugs, or Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT).
Attempts are being made to detect early stages of ovarian cancer, especially among women who have an increased risk. A blood test is done to check for a substance called CA 125.
If the sample contains raised amounts of CA 125, an ultrasound scan may be done to see if your ovaries appear abnormal in any way.
What are the Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
Ovarian cancer is the most dangerous of gynaecological cancers because it is often silent and difficult to detect.There is no early detection method, so you must be vigilant and take note of persistent warning signs seriously.
If you are having some of the following symptoms persisting for more than a week or so, see your doctor.
1.Vague gastrointestinal symptoms such as gas, indigestion, nausea and a bloated feeling
2.Swelling in the abdomen, unexplained weight gain
3.Pelvic or abdominal pain or discomfort, and/or feeling of fullness
4.Urinary symptoms e.g. frequency and/or urgency of urination in the absence of an infection
5.Unexplained or changes in bowel habits
6.Loss of appetite/loss of weight
7.backache or pain inthe legs
8.Abnormal vaginal bleeding, although this is rare
If you do have any of the above symptoms you must have them checked by your doctor. Remember, they are non specific and most women with these symptoms will not have cancer.
How do you make the diagnosis of Ovarian Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------------
If you are at risk of ovarian cancer, see your gynaecologist regularly.
The following may be done:
recto-vaginal bimanual pelvic exam,
recto-vaginal bimanual pelvic exam,
Pap smear,
blood test for CA-125
transvaginal ultrasound
What are the treatment of Ovarian Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
Treatment depends on a number of factors, including the stage of the disease (the extent of spread of the disease) and the general health of the patient.
Surgery, chemotherapy and various types of radiotherapy may be used alone, or in combination to treat ovarian cancer.
What are the treatment of Ovarian Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------
Treatment depends on a number of factors, including the stage of the disease (the extent of spread of the disease) and the general health of the patient.
Surgery, chemotherapy and various types of radiotherapy may be used alone, or in combination to treat ovarian cancer.
Surgery
Surgery is normally the first choice of treatment for ovarian cancer, and may sometimes also be needed to make the diagnosis. If detected is in the early stages, surgery is all the treatment that may be required. The ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and cervix are usually removed. The omentum and lymph nodes in the abdomen are often removed too.
If the surgeon feels the cancer may be difficult to remove, a few cycles of chemotherapy may be applied first and surgery carried out thereafter, in the hope that the tumour would have been reduced.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy may be given to destroy any cancerous cells that may remain in the body after surgery, to control cancer growth or to relieve symptoms of the disease. Sometimes a few cycles of chemotherapy may have to be applied before surgery is carried out.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is less commonly used in this cancer but may sometimes be used to treat individual areas of cancer which have recurred after surgery and chemotherapy.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy may be given to destroy any cancerous cells that may remain in the body after surgery, to control cancer growth or to relieve symptoms of the disease. Sometimes a few cycles of chemotherapy may have to be applied before surgery is carried out.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is less commonly used in this cancer but may sometimes be used to treat individual areas of cancer which have recurred after surgery and chemotherapy.
There have been many reports of the potential benefits of hormone treatments in patients with ovarian cancer that does not respond to conventional therapy.
Some patients with treatment-resistant (refractory) epithelial cancers have been treated with:
1.progestins - crude forms of the female sex hormone progesterone;
1.progestins - crude forms of the female sex hormone progesterone;
2.estrogens - for example, diethylstilbestrol
3.combination estrogen/progestin therapy;
4.antiestrogens - tamoxifen;
5.androgens - male sex hormones for example, Halotestin
6.gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - a hormone of the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of ovary-related hormones from the pituitary gland.
3.combination estrogen/progestin therapy;
4.antiestrogens - tamoxifen;
5.androgens - male sex hormones for example, Halotestin
6.gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - a hormone of the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of ovary-related hormones from the pituitary gland.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy eventually may provide some control over cancer susceptibility and its treatment. Ovarian cancer, like all cancers, is believed to result from a build-up of genetic defects within the cells.Genetic engineers hope to correct such damage by transplanting copies of normal genes into cells with genetic defects. However at the moment gene therapy is still experimental.
Friday, September 7, 2007
A Simple Guide to Scoliosis
A Simple Guide to Scoliosis
---------------------------------
What is Scoliosis?
----------------------
---------------------------------
What is Scoliosis?
----------------------
Scoliosis literally means a crooked spine, a lateral curve or angular deviation of one or more of the vertebral segments.
3% of the population have some form of scoliosis.
For many people it's not much of a problem.
For a small number of people, the curve gets worse as they grow.
What is the cause of Scoliosis?
-----------------------------------
3% of the population have some form of scoliosis.
For many people it's not much of a problem.
For a small number of people, the curve gets worse as they grow.
What is the cause of Scoliosis?
-----------------------------------
1.The most common type of scoliosis is called idiopathic(or unknown cause.) scoliosis.
2.Scoliosis can run in families, that is , it may be hereditary.
Who is affected by Scoliosis?
---------------------------------
2.Scoliosis can run in families, that is , it may be hereditary.
Who is affected by Scoliosis?
---------------------------------
Scoliosis usually begins at the age of 9-18 years when the bone starts growing during puberty. After this age, the curve usually become permanent as the bone stopped growing.
Scoliosis is more common in girls than boys.
How Do You check for Scoliosis?
--------------------------------------
Scoliosis may be easily noticeable.
A curved spine can cause someone's body to tilt to the left or right.
Many children with scoliosis have one shoulder blade that's higher than the other or an uneven waist with a tendency to lean to one side.
During a doctor visit in school, cases of scoliosis are easily detected during examination.
It's an easy test called the forward-bending test.
It involves bending over, with straight knees, and reaching your fingertips toward your feet or the floor. Then the doctor will look at your back to see if your spine curves.
Someone with scoliosis may have a back that curves like an "S" or a "C."
This type of curve may be noticeable to others and can be uncomfortable.
How to decide whether your Scoliosis require Treatment?
This type of curve may be noticeable to others and can be uncomfortable.
How to decide whether your Scoliosis require Treatment?
-------------------------------------------------------------------
If you have confirmed scoliosis, then the doctor will decide whether treatment is necessary. He may order X-rays of your spine. This will determine the angle of curvature and the severity.
If the curve is mild, you may not need much treatment except for exercises to straighten your back and consistent monitoring of your spine.
If the curve is severe ,an orthopedic surgeon will check on how severe your spine's curve is.
He will looks at your X-rays and measures the spine's curve in degrees.
Someone who has a mild curve may just need regular checkups to make sure the curve isn't getting worse.
Someone who has a mild curve may just need regular checkups to make sure the curve isn't getting worse.
Someone with a more severe curve may need to wear a brace or have an operation.
What is the treatment of Scoliosis?
------------------------------------------
What is the treatment of Scoliosis?
------------------------------------------
There are 3 main methods of treatments:
1.Exercises for back and monitoring:
-------------------------------------------
For mild cases, you may need to do some exercises to help straighten the back such as doing pull ups.
2.Treating With Braces
-----------------------------
2.Treating With Braces
-----------------------------
The brace for scoliosis is meant to hold the spine in place so the curve doesn't get any worse.
Some braces are made to be worn only at night.
Others are designed to be worn for much of the day.
Most children need to wear their braces at least 20 hours a day, so that means wearing them to school.
As he or she gets older and the spine curvature improve, braces are worn for a shorter peroid daily.
Braces now are lighter, more comfortable, and easier to wear.
There are many different types of braces.
Where the scoliosis is in the lower part of the back, the child often wear a brace called a thoracolumbosacral orthosis or TLSO for short.
This kind of brace comes up under the arms and is more comfortable than the bigger braces.
The two most popular TLSOs are the Boston brace and the Wilmington brace.
3.Treating With Surgery
----------------------------------
Some braces are made to be worn only at night.
Others are designed to be worn for much of the day.
Most children need to wear their braces at least 20 hours a day, so that means wearing them to school.
As he or she gets older and the spine curvature improve, braces are worn for a shorter peroid daily.
Braces now are lighter, more comfortable, and easier to wear.
There are many different types of braces.
Where the scoliosis is in the lower part of the back, the child often wear a brace called a thoracolumbosacral orthosis or TLSO for short.
This kind of brace comes up under the arms and is more comfortable than the bigger braces.
The two most popular TLSOs are the Boston brace and the Wilmington brace.
3.Treating With Surgery
----------------------------------
Some children who have scoliosis eventually need an operation because of the increasing severity of the scoliosis or if a severe scoliosis is detected late.
During the operation, the orthopedic surgeon fuses the bones in the spine together to correct the curve using metal rods, hooks, screws, and wires to hold everything in line until the bones heal.
The operation takes several hours, depending on how big the curve is and how many bones need to be fused.
After the operation,the child can usually go back to school about a month later.
He or she need not wear a brace and can return to some activities in 3 or 4 months, and most normal activities after a year.
Each patient's surgery and recovery might be different, depending on the type of surgery and the patient's age.
With improved treatment, more children with scoliosis can live normal lives.
Wednesday, September 5, 2007
A Simple Guide to Prostate Cancer
A Simple Guide to Prostate Cancer
-----------------------------------------
What is prostate cancer?
------------------------------
Cancer of the prostate occurs when the cells of the prostate gland mutates and turn cancerous.
Prostate cancer is a group of abnormal cells in the prostate which is a gland about the size of a walnut found in men between the bladder and rectum.
It produces and secretes prostatic fluid, one of the main components of semen.
How does prostate cancer occur?
---------------------------------------
Prostate cancer occurs when a malignant (harmful) tumour develops inside the gland. This could be caused by the male hormone testosterone.
However, the exact cause of prostate cancer is not known.
What are the types of Prostate Cancer?
----------------------------------------------
Prostate cancer can be
1.aggressive, which means it grows quickly and spreads to other parts of the body, such as the bone.
2.slow-growing, where the cancer patient can expect to live as long as men who do not have cancer. Most patients with slow-growing cancer will never have symptoms.
Three out of four cases of prostate cancer are of the slow-growing type that is relatively harmless.
What are the symptoms of prostate cancer?
----------------------------------------------------
Those with prostate cancer may experience similar symptoms to those with enlarged prostate gland and prostatitis (infection of the prostate gland), such as:
1.Difficulty starting to urinate
1.Difficulty starting to urinate
2.Having an interrupted or weak flow of urine
3.Dribbling after you finish urinating
4.Urinating too frequently, especially at night
5.Blood or pus in the urine
6.Pain or burning feeling while urinating
Other symptoms include:
1.Being unable to have an erection
2.Having blood in the semen
3.Constant pain in the hips, upper thighs or lower back area
Who is affected by prostate cancer?
------------------------------------------
Prostate cancer usually develop slowly, and is seldom the sole or final cause of death.
Men over 65 years of age are more likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer.
However, men aged 50 and above with a close relative who has had prostate cancer before 60 years of age, have a higher risk and should go for screening.
How can prostate cancer be detected?
--------------------------------------------
Your doctor may examine your prostate by putting a gloved, lubricated finger a few inches into your rectum to feel your prostate gland. A normal prostate feels firm. If there are hard spots on the prostate, your doctor may suspect cancer.It is difficult to detect prostate cancer accurately.
The current approach is to measure the amount of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) present in the blood. PSA is a protein produced by the prostate. However, this test is not always reliable. This is because infections or an enlarged prostate can also increase PSA levels and affect the test results.
Thus, a biopsy is normally used to confirm the diagnosis.
How is prostate cancer treated?
-------------------------------------
Surgery, radiation and drugs are the main treatment options.
They can cure prostate cancer if it's caught early.
However, these treatments can cause serious problems, such as impotence and incontinence.
Surgery or radiation may help treat the more aggressive cancers that are most often found in middle-aged men.
In serious cases, the tumour in the prostate gland can be removed with surgery.
After surgery, it is important that the patient has a healthy diet to build up strength and resistance. The patient must also be monitored closely, as in some cases the cancer could recur.
In rare cases,chemotherapy may be necessary for cancer which has spread to outside of the prostate.
Some mild cases may not require surgery, but require regular monitoring by doctors.
The treatment decision will depend on a combination of clinical and psychological factors.
Men diagnosed with localised prostate cancer today will likely live for many years.
Careful consideration of the different options is an important first step in deciding on the best treatment course.
Consultation with all three types of prostate cancer specialists—a urologist, a radiation oncologist and a medical oncologist—will offer the most comprehensive assessment of the available treatments and expected outcomes.
Consultation with all three types of prostate cancer specialists—a urologist, a radiation oncologist and a medical oncologist—will offer the most comprehensive assessment of the available treatments and expected outcomes.
Monday, September 3, 2007
A Simple Guide to Cerebral Palsy
A Simple Guide to Cerebral Palsy
---------------------------------------
What is Cerebral Palsy?
-----------------------------
Cerebral palsy refers to a group of disorders characterised by loss of motor functions or any other nerve functions that appear in infancy or early childhood and permanently affect body movement and muscle coordination but don't worsen over time.
Even though cerebral palsy affects muscle movement, it isn't caused by problems in the muscles or nerves. These disorders are caused by brain damage that occurs during foetal development or near the time of birth.
What are the causes of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------
The majority of children with cerebral palsy are born with it, although it may not be detected until months or years later.
Cerebral Palsy is mainly caused by brain damage that occurs during foetal development.
A small number of children have cerebral palsy as the result of brain damage in the first few months or years of life:
1. brain infections such as bacterial meningitis or viral encephalitis
2. head injury from a motor vehicle accident, a fall, or child abuse.
It is not an inherited disease.
What are the Symptoms of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------------
The early signs of cerebral palsy usually appear before a child reaches 3 years of age. Babies with Cerebral Palsy are usually slow to reach developmental milestones.
Abilities like learning to roll over, sit, crawl, smile or walk are not well developed.
The motor abilities will often seem unusual and strange.
The most common are:
1.lack of muscle coordination when performing voluntary movements (ataxia);
2.stiff or tight muscles and exaggerated reflexes (spasticity);
3.walking with one foot or leg dragging;
4.walking on the toes,
5.crouched gait, or a "scissored" gait:
6.muscle tone that is either too stiff or too floppy.
The symptoms of Cerebral Palsy vary from just mild clumsiness to extensive uncontrolled muscle spasticity.
Many with cerebral palsy have other disabilities :
1.seizures,
2.an inability to see, hear, speak or learn as others do,
3.psychological or behavioural problems.
Not everyone with Cerebral Palsy is retarded. Some are of average intelligence.
While some people with Cerebral Palsy have learning disabilities many others do not.
What are the Types of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------
There are four types of Cerebral Palsy:
1.Spastic Cerebral Palsy, the most common type, is a disorder in which certain muscles are stiff and weak.
2.Athetoid (dyskinetic, hypotonic, dystonia) Cerebral Palsy where involuntary movements are present.
3.Ataxic Cerebral Palsy occurs when the Cerebellum has been damaged, thus causing lack of coordination and jerky movements. This form of Cerebral Palsy have staggered or fragmented movements often involving tremors or exaggerated posturing (athetosis) and bizarre twisting motions.
4.Mixed Cerebral Palsy is when two or more types of cerebral palsy are present in the same person.
What is the Treatment of Cerebral Palsy?
-------------------------------------------------
Cerebral Palsy is a lifelong condition that cannot be cured.
The treatment is aimed at maintaining or improving the quality of life, providing the sufferer with tools to enjoy a near-normal life.
There are basically three types of treatment for Cerebral Palsy:
1.Surgery can be used to correct muscle contractures - removal of tight contractures that inhibits proper movement of the limbs.
2.Drugs such as clonazepam, baclofen and dantrolene are sometimes used to control muscle spasticity. Anticholinergic medications can help to control abnormal movements.
Alcohol or botulinum toxin type A (Botox) injections into muscle may be used to reduce spasticity for a short time so health care providers can work to lengthen a muscle.
3.Adjunctive therapies include
a.Physiotherapy, the most common treatment for cerebral palsy, consists of special exercises designed to increase and improve the range of movement and strength of the muscle groups, is aimed at strengthening and stretching muscles and preventing spasticity as well as increasing muscle control.
b.Occupational therapy is designed to help the child develop the fine motor skills needed to function day-to-day at home and school.
c.Speech therapy will also help the child develop communication skills.
What is the prognosis of Cerebral Palsy?
-------------------------------------------------
Cerebral palsy doesn't always cause profound disabilities.
A child with severe cerebral palsy might be unable to walk and need extensive, lifelong care.
Another with mild cerebral palsy might be only slightly awkward and require no special assistance.
Supportive treatments, medications, and surgery can help many individuals improve their motor skills and ability to communicate with the world.
---------------------------------------
What is Cerebral Palsy?
-----------------------------
Cerebral palsy refers to a group of disorders characterised by loss of motor functions or any other nerve functions that appear in infancy or early childhood and permanently affect body movement and muscle coordination but don't worsen over time.
Even though cerebral palsy affects muscle movement, it isn't caused by problems in the muscles or nerves. These disorders are caused by brain damage that occurs during foetal development or near the time of birth.
What are the causes of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------
The majority of children with cerebral palsy are born with it, although it may not be detected until months or years later.
Cerebral Palsy is mainly caused by brain damage that occurs during foetal development.
A small number of children have cerebral palsy as the result of brain damage in the first few months or years of life:
1. brain infections such as bacterial meningitis or viral encephalitis
2. head injury from a motor vehicle accident, a fall, or child abuse.
It is not an inherited disease.
What are the Symptoms of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------------
The early signs of cerebral palsy usually appear before a child reaches 3 years of age. Babies with Cerebral Palsy are usually slow to reach developmental milestones.
Abilities like learning to roll over, sit, crawl, smile or walk are not well developed.
The motor abilities will often seem unusual and strange.
The most common are:
1.lack of muscle coordination when performing voluntary movements (ataxia);
2.stiff or tight muscles and exaggerated reflexes (spasticity);
3.walking with one foot or leg dragging;
4.walking on the toes,
5.crouched gait, or a "scissored" gait:
6.muscle tone that is either too stiff or too floppy.
The symptoms of Cerebral Palsy vary from just mild clumsiness to extensive uncontrolled muscle spasticity.
Many with cerebral palsy have other disabilities :
1.seizures,
2.an inability to see, hear, speak or learn as others do,
3.psychological or behavioural problems.
Not everyone with Cerebral Palsy is retarded. Some are of average intelligence.
While some people with Cerebral Palsy have learning disabilities many others do not.
What are the Types of Cerebral Palsy?
---------------------------------------------
There are four types of Cerebral Palsy:
1.Spastic Cerebral Palsy, the most common type, is a disorder in which certain muscles are stiff and weak.
2.Athetoid (dyskinetic, hypotonic, dystonia) Cerebral Palsy where involuntary movements are present.
3.Ataxic Cerebral Palsy occurs when the Cerebellum has been damaged, thus causing lack of coordination and jerky movements. This form of Cerebral Palsy have staggered or fragmented movements often involving tremors or exaggerated posturing (athetosis) and bizarre twisting motions.
4.Mixed Cerebral Palsy is when two or more types of cerebral palsy are present in the same person.
What is the Treatment of Cerebral Palsy?
-------------------------------------------------
Cerebral Palsy is a lifelong condition that cannot be cured.
The treatment is aimed at maintaining or improving the quality of life, providing the sufferer with tools to enjoy a near-normal life.
There are basically three types of treatment for Cerebral Palsy:
1.Surgery can be used to correct muscle contractures - removal of tight contractures that inhibits proper movement of the limbs.
2.Drugs such as clonazepam, baclofen and dantrolene are sometimes used to control muscle spasticity. Anticholinergic medications can help to control abnormal movements.
Alcohol or botulinum toxin type A (Botox) injections into muscle may be used to reduce spasticity for a short time so health care providers can work to lengthen a muscle.
3.Adjunctive therapies include
a.Physiotherapy, the most common treatment for cerebral palsy, consists of special exercises designed to increase and improve the range of movement and strength of the muscle groups, is aimed at strengthening and stretching muscles and preventing spasticity as well as increasing muscle control.
b.Occupational therapy is designed to help the child develop the fine motor skills needed to function day-to-day at home and school.
c.Speech therapy will also help the child develop communication skills.
What is the prognosis of Cerebral Palsy?
-------------------------------------------------
Cerebral palsy doesn't always cause profound disabilities.
A child with severe cerebral palsy might be unable to walk and need extensive, lifelong care.
Another with mild cerebral palsy might be only slightly awkward and require no special assistance.
Supportive treatments, medications, and surgery can help many individuals improve their motor skills and ability to communicate with the world.
Sunday, September 2, 2007
A Simple Guide to Colorectal Cancer
A Simple Guide to Colorectal Cancer
--------------------------------------------
What is Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------
is one of the commonest cancer among males and females in the world. Colorectal cancer is cancer that starts in the large intestine (colon) or the rectum (end of the colon). Colorectal cancer can be effectively treated if detected early.
What is the cause of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
Colorectal cancer occurs when cells from the intestinal wall grow and spread uncontrollably.
It may begin as polyps (growths) in the large intestine and rectum. Polyps should be monitored regularly and removed upon detection to prevent them from developing into cancer.
Who are at risk of Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------------------
As with most cancers, the risk of developing colorectal cancer increases with age.
People at high risk include those with:
1. family history ofpersonal history of endometrial, ovarian or breast cancer
3. personal history or family history of gastrointestinal polyps
4. history of inflammatory bowel disease such as chronic ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease.
5. Cancer elsewhere in the body
6. Certain genetic syndromes also increase the risk of developing colon cancer.
What you eat may play a role in your risk of colon cancer.
Colon cancer may be associated with a high-fat, low-fiber diet and red meat.
However, some studies found that the risk does not drop if you switch to a high-fiber diet, so the cause of the link is not yet clear.
What are the Symptoms of Colorectal Cancer?
------------------------------------------------------------------
In its early stages, the cancer usually has no symptoms, which is why regular screening is important to see if it could be present.
The most common symptom of colorectal cancer, especially if it is located in the lower part of the large intestine, is changes in bowel habits. For some, it may be an increase in the number of bowel visits to the toilet, and for others, it may be constipation. Still others may complain of constipation with overflow diarrhoea, i.e., difficulty in passing motion but stools flow out without any control.
Other symptoms include
bloody or black stools from bleeding of the tumour (blood appears black on digestion in the intestines),
fatigue, appetite and weight loss of unknown cause,
Unexplained anemia
abdominal pains, cramps or bloating in the lower abdomen
Intestinal obstruction
Narrow stools
With proper screening, colon cancer can be detected BEFORE the development of symptoms, when it is most curable.
What are the signs of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
The physical exam rarely shows any problems, although an abdominal mass may be felt in late cases.
A rectal exam may reveal a mass in patients with rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.
How do you Screen for Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------------------------
People over the age of 50 years are advised to screen for colorectal cancer, even if they have no symptoms.
A Faecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT>) is recommended once every year.
If the results are positive, other tests like a sigmoidoscopy, barium enema and colonoscopy may be required.
A complete blood count may reveal show signs of anemia with low iron levels.
What is the treatment of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------
Surgery:
is the main treatment.
In surgery, the part of the large intestine containing the cancer is removed.
In some cases, the two ends of the colon can be rejoined.
Sometimes an opening called a stoma has to be left in the abdominal for the removal of waste. This opening may be temporary or permanent.
Radiation Therapy:
destroy the cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding tissue. It is used to prevent recurrence of the cancer and for pain relief. Side effects include skin irritation,nausea,vomiting and lethargy.
Chemotherapy:
is used to kill the cancer cells in the colon and rectum as well as to prevent a recurrence.
Side effects may be quite severe with loss of hair, weight, appetite, nausea, vomiting, rashes.
Which treatment is used depends on the staging of the cancer using additional tests.
Staging of the Cancer:
---------------------------
Stage 0: Very early cancer on the innermost layer of the intestine
Stage I: Cancer is in the inner layers of the colon
Stage II: Cancer has spread through the muscle wall of the colon
Stage III: Cancer has spread to the lymph nodes
Stage IV: Cancer that has spread to other organs
Stage 0 colon cancer may be treated by removing the cancer cells, often during a colonoscopy.
For stages I, II, and III cancer, more extensive surgery is needed to remove the part of the colon that is cancerous.
There is some debate as to whether patients with stage II colorectal cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery. You should discuss this with your oncologist.
Almost all patients with stage III colorectal cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery for approximately 6 - 8 months. The chemotherapy drug 5-fluorouracil given has been shown to increase the chance of a cure in certain patients.
Chemotherapy is also used to treat patients with stage IV colon cancer.
--------------------------------------------
What is Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------
What is the cause of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
Colorectal cancer occurs when cells from the intestinal wall grow and spread uncontrollably.
It may begin as polyps (growths) in the large intestine and rectum. Polyps should be monitored regularly and removed upon detection to prevent them from developing into cancer.
Who are at risk of Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------------------
As with most cancers, the risk of developing colorectal cancer increases with age.
People at high risk include those with:
1. family history of
3. personal history or family history of gastrointestinal polyps
4. history of inflammatory bowel disease such as chronic ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease.
5. Cancer elsewhere in the body
6. Certain genetic syndromes also increase the risk of developing colon cancer.
What you eat may play a role in your risk of colon cancer.
Colon cancer may be associated with a high-fat, low-fiber diet and red meat.
However, some studies found that the risk does not drop if you switch to a high-fiber diet, so the cause of the link is not yet clear.
What are the Symptoms of Colorectal Cancer?
------------------------------------------------------------------
In its early stages, the cancer usually has no symptoms, which is why regular screening is important to see if it could be present.
The most common symptom of colorectal cancer, especially if it is located in the lower part of the large intestine, is changes in bowel habits. For some, it may be an increase in the number of bowel visits to the toilet, and for others, it may be constipation. Still others may complain of constipation with overflow diarrhoea, i.e., difficulty in passing motion but stools flow out without any control.
Other symptoms include
bloody or black stools from bleeding of the tumour (blood appears black on digestion in the intestines),
fatigue, appetite and weight loss of unknown cause,
Unexplained anemia
abdominal pains, cramps or bloating in the lower abdomen
Intestinal obstruction
Narrow stools
With proper screening, colon cancer can be detected BEFORE the development of symptoms, when it is most curable.
What are the signs of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
The physical exam rarely shows any problems, although an abdominal mass may be felt in late cases.
A rectal exam may reveal a mass in patients with rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.
How do you Screen for Colorectal Cancer?
--------------------------------------------------
People over the age of 50 years are advised to screen for colorectal cancer, even if they have no symptoms.
A Faecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT>) is recommended once every year.
If the results are positive, other tests like a sigmoidoscopy, barium enema and colonoscopy may be required.
A complete blood count may reveal show signs of anemia with low iron levels.
What is the treatment of Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------
Surgery:
is the main treatment.
In surgery, the part of the large intestine containing the cancer is removed.
In some cases, the two ends of the colon can be rejoined.
Sometimes an opening called a stoma has to be left in the abdominal for the removal of waste. This opening may be temporary or permanent.
Radiation Therapy:
destroy the cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding tissue. It is used to prevent recurrence of the cancer and for pain relief. Side effects include skin irritation,nausea,vomiting and lethargy.
Chemotherapy:
is used to kill the cancer cells in the colon and rectum as well as to prevent a recurrence.
Side effects may be quite severe with loss of hair, weight, appetite, nausea, vomiting, rashes.
Which treatment is used depends on the staging of the cancer using additional tests.
Staging of the Cancer:
---------------------------
Stage 0: Very early cancer on the innermost layer of the intestine
Stage I: Cancer is in the inner layers of the colon
Stage II: Cancer has spread through the muscle wall of the colon
Stage III: Cancer has spread to the lymph nodes
Stage IV: Cancer that has spread to other organs
Stage 0 colon cancer may be treated by removing the cancer cells, often during a colonoscopy.
For stages I, II, and III cancer, more extensive surgery is needed to remove the part of the colon that is cancerous.
There is some debate as to whether patients with stage II colorectal cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery. You should discuss this with your oncologist.
Almost all patients with stage III colorectal cancer should receive chemotherapy after surgery for approximately 6 - 8 months. The chemotherapy drug 5-fluorouracil given has been shown to increase the chance of a cure in certain patients.
Chemotherapy is also used to treat patients with stage IV colon cancer.
Irinotecan, oxaliplatin, and 5-fluorouracil are commonly used drugs. You may receive just one type, or a combination of the drugs. Capecitabine is a chemotherapy drug taken by mouth, and is similar to 5-fluroruracil.
For patients with stage IV disease that has spread to the liver, various treatments directed specifically at the liver can be used. This may include cutting out the cancer, burning it (ablation), or freezing it (cryotherapy). Chemotherapy or radiation can sometimes be delivered directly into the liver.
While radiation therapy is occasionally used in patients with colon cancer, it is usually used in combination with chemotherapy for patients with stage III rectal cancer.
What is the Prognosis(outcome) of Colorectal Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------------------
How well a patient does depends on many things, including the stage of the cancer.
In general, when treated at an early stage, more than 90% of patients survive at least 5 years after their diagnosis.
However, only about 40% of colorectal cancer is found at an early stage.
The 5-year survival rate drops considerably once the cancer has spread.
If the patient's colon cancer does not come back (recur) within 5 years, it is considered as cured.
Stage I, II, and III cancers are considered potentially curable.
Stage IV cancer is not curable in most cases.
How to prevent Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------
Prevention of Colorectal Cancer involve:
1. early and regular screening,
2. lifestyle changes:
Maintain a balanced diet low in animal or saturated fat such as butter, coconut oil, ghee and lard.
Diets high in total fat, protein, calories and meat, and low in calcium are associated with an increased incidence of colorectal cancer.
Increase your intake to at least 2 servings of fruits and vegetables each day. Studies have shown that very low intake of fruits and vegetables is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer.
Quit smoking. Cigarette smoke contains many chemicals that promote the development of many types of cancers.
Increase physical activity. Physical activity promotes general health and reduces your risk of colorectal cancer.
Maintain your BMI within the healthy range of 18.5 to 22.9 (kg/m2).
The death rate for colorectal cancer has dropped in the last 15 years.
This may be due to increased awareness and screening by colonoscopy.
Colorectal cancer can almost always be caught in its earliest and most curable stages by colonoscopy.
Almost all men and women age 50 and older should have a colonoscopy.
Other types of colorectal cancer such as lymphoma, carcinoid tumors, melanoma, and sarcomas are rare. The colorectal cancer referred to in this article refers to Colorectal carcinoma.
While radiation therapy is occasionally used in patients with colon cancer, it is usually used in combination with chemotherapy for patients with stage III rectal cancer.
What is the Prognosis(outcome) of Colorectal Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------------------
How well a patient does depends on many things, including the stage of the cancer.
In general, when treated at an early stage, more than 90% of patients survive at least 5 years after their diagnosis.
However, only about 40% of colorectal cancer is found at an early stage.
The 5-year survival rate drops considerably once the cancer has spread.
If the patient's colon cancer does not come back (recur) within 5 years, it is considered as cured.
Stage I, II, and III cancers are considered potentially curable.
Stage IV cancer is not curable in most cases.
How to prevent Colorectal Cancer?
-----------------------------------------
Prevention of Colorectal Cancer involve:
1. early and regular screening,
2. lifestyle changes:
Maintain a balanced diet low in animal or saturated fat such as butter, coconut oil, ghee and lard.
Diets high in total fat, protein, calories and meat, and low in calcium are associated with an increased incidence of colorectal cancer.
Increase your intake to at least 2 servings of fruits and vegetables each day. Studies have shown that very low intake of fruits and vegetables is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer.
Quit smoking. Cigarette smoke contains many chemicals that promote the development of many types of cancers.
Increase physical activity. Physical activity promotes general health and reduces your risk of colorectal cancer.
Maintain your BMI within the healthy range of 18.5 to 22.9 (kg/m2).
The death rate for colorectal cancer has dropped in the last 15 years.
This may be due to increased awareness and screening by colonoscopy.
Colorectal cancer can almost always be caught in its earliest and most curable stages by colonoscopy.
Almost all men and women age 50 and older should have a colonoscopy.
Other types of colorectal cancer such as lymphoma, carcinoid tumors, melanoma, and sarcomas are rare. The colorectal cancer referred to in this article refers to Colorectal carcinoma.
Friday, August 31, 2007
A Simple Guide to Breast Cancer
A Simple Guide to Breast Cancer
--------------------------------------
What is Breast Cancer?
---------------------------
Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the breast. It is the most common type of cancer among women.
--------------------------------------
What is Breast Cancer?
---------------------------
Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the breast. It is the most common type of cancer among women.
How does Breast Cancer Presents?
-----------------------------------------
Breast Cancer occurs as uncontrolled growth of mutated (abnormal) cells from the breast tissues.
It occurs as in 2 main forms:
1.preinvasive cancer:
Preinvasive breast cancer is confined to the breast ducts or lobules and the cancer cells do not have the abilty to spread. It is classified as Stage 0 Breast Cancer (carcinoma-in-situ).
2.invasive cancer:
Invasive Breast Cancer occurs when the cancer cells spread to the surrounding tissues of the breasts and then to the lymph nodes under the armpits.
These cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body like the lungs, liver and bones.
Invasive breast cancer is classified into 4 stages from Stage 1 to 4 according to severity, stage 4 being the most severe.
What are the Risk factors in Breast Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------
All women are at risk of breast cancer and the risk increases with age.
Main risk factors are:
1.family history of breast cancer,
2 past medical history of breast cancer and ovarian cancer,
3.Menstruating at an early age.
4.late menopause or
5.having your first child after age 30 or never having given birth.
6.Taking hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
What are the signs of Breast Cancer?
-------------------------------------------
Signs, which may indicate Breast Cancer, are:
1.a painless lump in the breast or armpit
2.abnormal discharge from the nipple
3.changes in the skin over the breast or nipple
4.new retraction (pulling in) of the nipple
5.persistant rash around the nipple
How do you diagnose Breast Cancer?
------------------------------------------
1.Breast Self Examination (BSE)
-----------------------------------
It is very important for every woman above aged 30 years old to learn, and practise BSE regularly once a month, about a week after each menstrual period. Women who no longer have periods should practise BSE on a fixed date each month.
2.Mammography
------------------
1.Women aged 40 - 49 years are encouraged to go for regular mammography every year 2.Women 50 years and above should go every two years.
3.Women who are at higher risk of developing breast cancer should see a doctor for advice. You may need to go for screening earlier and more frequently.
Mammography is a low-dose X-ray of the breast using specially designed X-ray machine.
It is the most effective method to detect very small lumps in the breast even before they can be felt by the hand.
3.Ultrasound of the Breasts
-------------------------------
Ultrasound of the Breasts is used together with mammography in cases where the diagnosis of possible cancer of the breast is not confirmed.
The ultrasound may be able to detect small lumps, which are not detected by mammogram.
4.MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) of the Breasts
----------------------------------------------------------
MRI is a procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas in the body. With advancement of technology, a MRI of the breasts can detect even more clearly any abnormal lumps or tissues in the breasts.
5.Estrogen and progesterone receptor test:
-----------------------------------------------
A test to measure the amount of estrogen and progesterone (female hormones) receptors in cancer tissue. The test results show whether hormone therapy may stop the cancer from growing.
6.Biopsy:
-----------
The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. If a lump in the breast is found, the doctor may need to cut out a small piece of the lump.
Four types of biopsies are as follows:
Excisional biopsy: The removal of an entire lump or suspicious tissue.
Incisional biopsy: The removal of part of a lump or suspicious tissue.
Core biopsy: The removal of part of a lump or suspicious tissue using a wide needle.
Needle biopsy: The removal of part of a lump, suspicious tissue, or fluid, using a thin needle.
What is the Treatment of Breast Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
There are different types of treatment for patients with breast cancer.
Four types of standard treatment are used:
1.Surgery
---------
Most patients with breast cancer have surgery to remove the cancer from the breast. Some of the lymph nodes under the arm are usually taken out and looked at under a microscope to see if they contain cancer cells.
Lumpectomy: Breast-conserving surgery to remove a tumor (lump) and a small amount of normal tissue around it.
Partial mastectomy: Surgery to remove the part of the breast that has cancer and some normal tissue around it. This procedure is also called a segmental mastectomy.
Total mastectomy: Surgery to remove the whole breast that has cancer. This procedure is also called a simple mastectomy. Some of the lymph nodes under the arm may be removed for biopsy at the same time as the breast surgery or after. This is done through a separate incision.
Modified radical mastectomy: Surgery to remove the whole breast that has cancer, many of the lymph nodes under the arm, the lining over the chest muscles, and sometimes, part of the chest wall muscles.
Radical mastectomy: Surgery to remove the breast that has cancer, chest wall muscles under the breast, and all of the lymph nodes under the arm. This procedure is sometimes called a Halsted radical mastectomy.
Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or hormone therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to increase the chances of a cure, is called adjuvant therapy.
If a patient is going to have a mastectomy, breast reconstruction (surgery to rebuild a breast's shape after a mastectomy) may be considered. Breast reconstruction may be done at the time of the mastectomy or at a future time.
2.Radiation therapy
--------=---------------
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.
External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.
Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.
3.Chemotherapy
--------------------
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.
4.Hormone therapy
-----------------------
Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes female hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing.
Examples are tamoxifen and aromaase inhibitors.
Other newer methods are:
Sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by surgery
--------------------------------------------------------
Sentinel lymph node biopsy is the removal of the sentinel lymph node during surgery. The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumor. After that biopsy, the surgeon removes the tumor (breast-conserving surgery or mastectomy).
Monoclonal antibodies as adjuvant therapy
---------------------------------------------------
Monoclonal antibody therapy is a cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory, from a single type of immune system cell. The antibodies attach to the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading.
Examples are Trastuzumab (Herceptin) which blocks the effects of the growth factor protein HER2, Tyrosine kinase inhibitors which block signals needed for tumors to grow, Lapatinib which blocks the effects of the HER2 protein and other proteins inside tumor cells.
Treatment of Preinvasive Breast Cancer
------------------------------------------------
Surgery is the main form of treatment for this stage of Cancer.
Either a lumpectomy or a mastectomy can be done.
Women who choose lumpectomy usually have to undergo radiation treatment or radiotherapy.
The type of surgical treatment depends on
1. The size and extent of cancer within the breast
2.the patient's suitability or desire to undergo radiotherapy.
Chemotherapy is not required for cancer detected at such an early stage.
Treatment of Invasive Breast Cancer
-------------------------------------------
Surgery is the main treatment as well in this case.
It involves the removal of the cancer with or without preserving the breast.
In the late stages where the cancer has spread to the other parts of the body, surgical removal of the cancer may be done to reduce the pain.
Chemotherapy is given to treat the cancer that has spread beyond the breast and armpit. It can be given orally or by injection.
The decision to use chemotherapy depends on:
1. The stage of the cancer
2. Type of cancer cells
3. Whether the woman has reached menopause
Chemotherapy may be used before surgery in large cancers to reduce cancer recurrence or to increase the chance of safe breast preservation surgery.
Hormonal therapy is used for hormone responsive cancers to deprive the cancer cells of oestrogen, which is required for such cancers to grow.
It is given in place of chemotherapy or following it.
Radiotherapy uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells or stop them from growing further. It may be given for a peroid of time after a lumpectomy or after a mastectomy.
It is also given for inoperable cancers.
How is Breast Cancer Recurrence detected?
---------------------------------------------------
After cancer treatment, patients are required to follow up with their doctors at regular intervals especially in the first 5 years after treatment when the risk of recurrence is highest.
This include:
Physical examination of the breasts, underarm, neck.
Peroidic mammograms
Blood tests
Chest x-rays and
Bone scan.
Any complaints of change in surgical areas or other parts of the breasts, swollen lymph glands or bone pains may suggest a recurrence.
What is the Prognosis of Breast Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
1.stage of the cancer (whether it is in the breast only or has spread to lymph nodes or other places in the body).
2. type of breast cancer.
3.Estrogen-receptor and progesterone-receptor levels in the tumor tissue.
4.woman's age, general health, and menopausal status (whether a woman is still having menstrual periods).
5.Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred.
Finally please note that Breast Cancer can also occur in Men!
Breast Cancer occurs as uncontrolled growth of mutated (abnormal) cells from the breast tissues.
It occurs as in 2 main forms:
1.preinvasive cancer:
Preinvasive breast cancer is confined to the breast ducts or lobules and the cancer cells do not have the abilty to spread. It is classified as Stage 0 Breast Cancer (carcinoma-in-situ).
2.invasive cancer:
Invasive Breast Cancer occurs when the cancer cells spread to the surrounding tissues of the breasts and then to the lymph nodes under the armpits.
These cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body like the lungs, liver and bones.
Invasive breast cancer is classified into 4 stages from Stage 1 to 4 according to severity, stage 4 being the most severe.
What are the Risk factors in Breast Cancer?
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All women are at risk of breast cancer and the risk increases with age.
Main risk factors are:
1.family history of breast cancer,
2 past medical history of breast cancer and ovarian cancer,
3.Menstruating at an early age.
4.late menopause or
5.having your first child after age 30 or never having given birth.
6.Taking hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
What are the signs of Breast Cancer?
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Signs, which may indicate Breast Cancer, are:
1.a painless lump in the breast or armpit
2.abnormal discharge from the nipple
3.changes in the skin over the breast or nipple
4.new retraction (pulling in) of the nipple
5.persistant rash around the nipple
How do you diagnose Breast Cancer?
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1.Breast Self Examination (BSE)
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It is very important for every woman above aged 30 years old to learn, and practise BSE regularly once a month, about a week after each menstrual period. Women who no longer have periods should practise BSE on a fixed date each month.
2.Mammography
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1.Women aged 40 - 49 years are encouraged to go for regular mammography every year 2.Women 50 years and above should go every two years.
3.Women who are at higher risk of developing breast cancer should see a doctor for advice. You may need to go for screening earlier and more frequently.
Mammography is a low-dose X-ray of the breast using specially designed X-ray machine.
It is the most effective method to detect very small lumps in the breast even before they can be felt by the hand.
3.Ultrasound of the Breasts
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Ultrasound of the Breasts is used together with mammography in cases where the diagnosis of possible cancer of the breast is not confirmed.
The ultrasound may be able to detect small lumps, which are not detected by mammogram.
4.MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) of the Breasts
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MRI is a procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas in the body. With advancement of technology, a MRI of the breasts can detect even more clearly any abnormal lumps or tissues in the breasts.
5.Estrogen and progesterone receptor test:
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A test to measure the amount of estrogen and progesterone (female hormones) receptors in cancer tissue. The test results show whether hormone therapy may stop the cancer from growing.
6.Biopsy:
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The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. If a lump in the breast is found, the doctor may need to cut out a small piece of the lump.
Four types of biopsies are as follows:
Excisional biopsy: The removal of an entire lump or suspicious tissue.
Incisional biopsy: The removal of part of a lump or suspicious tissue.
Core biopsy: The removal of part of a lump or suspicious tissue using a wide needle.
Needle biopsy: The removal of part of a lump, suspicious tissue, or fluid, using a thin needle.
What is the Treatment of Breast Cancer?
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There are different types of treatment for patients with breast cancer.
Four types of standard treatment are used:
1.Surgery
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Most patients with breast cancer have surgery to remove the cancer from the breast. Some of the lymph nodes under the arm are usually taken out and looked at under a microscope to see if they contain cancer cells.
Lumpectomy: Breast-conserving surgery to remove a tumor (lump) and a small amount of normal tissue around it.
Partial mastectomy: Surgery to remove the part of the breast that has cancer and some normal tissue around it. This procedure is also called a segmental mastectomy.
Total mastectomy: Surgery to remove the whole breast that has cancer. This procedure is also called a simple mastectomy. Some of the lymph nodes under the arm may be removed for biopsy at the same time as the breast surgery or after. This is done through a separate incision.
Modified radical mastectomy: Surgery to remove the whole breast that has cancer, many of the lymph nodes under the arm, the lining over the chest muscles, and sometimes, part of the chest wall muscles.
Radical mastectomy: Surgery to remove the breast that has cancer, chest wall muscles under the breast, and all of the lymph nodes under the arm. This procedure is sometimes called a Halsted radical mastectomy.
Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or hormone therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to increase the chances of a cure, is called adjuvant therapy.
If a patient is going to have a mastectomy, breast reconstruction (surgery to rebuild a breast's shape after a mastectomy) may be considered. Breast reconstruction may be done at the time of the mastectomy or at a future time.
2.Radiation therapy
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Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.
External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.
Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.
3.Chemotherapy
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Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.
4.Hormone therapy
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Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes female hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing.
Examples are tamoxifen and aromaase inhibitors.
Other newer methods are:
Sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by surgery
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Sentinel lymph node biopsy is the removal of the sentinel lymph node during surgery. The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumor. After that biopsy, the surgeon removes the tumor (breast-conserving surgery or mastectomy).
Monoclonal antibodies as adjuvant therapy
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Monoclonal antibody therapy is a cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory, from a single type of immune system cell. The antibodies attach to the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading.
Examples are Trastuzumab (Herceptin) which blocks the effects of the growth factor protein HER2, Tyrosine kinase inhibitors which block signals needed for tumors to grow, Lapatinib which blocks the effects of the HER2 protein and other proteins inside tumor cells.
Treatment of Preinvasive Breast Cancer
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Surgery is the main form of treatment for this stage of Cancer.
Either a lumpectomy or a mastectomy can be done.
Women who choose lumpectomy usually have to undergo radiation treatment or radiotherapy.
The type of surgical treatment depends on
1. The size and extent of cancer within the breast
2.the patient's suitability or desire to undergo radiotherapy.
Chemotherapy is not required for cancer detected at such an early stage.
Treatment of Invasive Breast Cancer
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Surgery is the main treatment as well in this case.
It involves the removal of the cancer with or without preserving the breast.
In the late stages where the cancer has spread to the other parts of the body, surgical removal of the cancer may be done to reduce the pain.
Chemotherapy is given to treat the cancer that has spread beyond the breast and armpit. It can be given orally or by injection.
The decision to use chemotherapy depends on:
1. The stage of the cancer
2. Type of cancer cells
3. Whether the woman has reached menopause
Chemotherapy may be used before surgery in large cancers to reduce cancer recurrence or to increase the chance of safe breast preservation surgery.
Hormonal therapy is used for hormone responsive cancers to deprive the cancer cells of oestrogen, which is required for such cancers to grow.
It is given in place of chemotherapy or following it.
Radiotherapy uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells or stop them from growing further. It may be given for a peroid of time after a lumpectomy or after a mastectomy.
It is also given for inoperable cancers.
How is Breast Cancer Recurrence detected?
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After cancer treatment, patients are required to follow up with their doctors at regular intervals especially in the first 5 years after treatment when the risk of recurrence is highest.
This include:
Physical examination of the breasts, underarm, neck.
Peroidic mammograms
Blood tests
Chest x-rays and
Bone scan.
Any complaints of change in surgical areas or other parts of the breasts, swollen lymph glands or bone pains may suggest a recurrence.
What is the Prognosis of Breast Cancer?
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The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
1.stage of the cancer (whether it is in the breast only or has spread to lymph nodes or other places in the body).
2. type of breast cancer.
3.Estrogen-receptor and progesterone-receptor levels in the tumor tissue.
4.woman's age, general health, and menopausal status (whether a woman is still having menstrual periods).
5.Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred.
Finally please note that Breast Cancer can also occur in Men!
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