A Simple Guide to Urethritis
------------------------------
What is Urethritis?
----------------------
Urethritis is an acute infection of the urethra(the tube which allows passage of urine from the bladder to the outside).
What are the causes of Urethritis?
---------------------------------------
Urethritis is usually caused by the following:
1.sexually transmitted disease like gonorrhea and chlamydia.
2.Urinary infection such as cystitis
3.In males associated with prostatitis
4.Urinary stone stuck in the urethra may cause urethitis
6.urinary catheterisation
7.Injury to the urethra
8.Important component of Reiter's Syndrome
What are the symptoms and signs of Urethritis?
------------------------------------------------
Persons who has Acute Urethritis has the following
Symptoms:
------------------
1.painful urination
2.purulent discharge from penis in males or vagina in females
3.frequency of urination
4.cloudy and unpleasant smelling urine, sometimes blood in the urine
5.fever and chills
6.Polyathritis and conjunctivitis in Reiter's Syndrome
Signs:
------
1. pussy discharge can be seen in male's urethra or in female vagina
2.redness and inflammation of the opening of the urethra
How do you diagnose Urethritis?
--------------------------------
Diagnosis can usually be made by :
1.History of sexual activity followed by frequency of urination, painful urination or pussy discharge from urethra or vagina
2.Urine test shows the presence of pus cells, leucocyte, red blood cells and micro-organisms
3.Urine culture for bacteria and sexually transmitted organisms and the antibiotic most appropriate for it.
4. cystoscopy may be necessary to exclude urinary stones,tumours of the bladder in the case of blood in the urine
What is the complications of Urethritis?
-------------------------------------
Upward infections from the urethra can lead to infections of the bladder and kidneys.
What is the treatment of Urethritis?
-------------------------------------
Analgesic medicine for pain
Approprate Antibiotics for infections especially after urine bacterial culture
Lots of fluids
What is the prognosis of Urethritis?
----------------------------------------
Prognosis is usually good with medication.
Sexual partner may need to be treated.
Recurrence is quite common.
Monday, March 10, 2008
Saturday, March 8, 2008
A Simple Guide to Prostatitis
A Simple Guide to Prostatitis
------------------------------
What is Prostatitis?
----------------------
Prostatitis is an acute or chronic infection of the prostate gland.
What are the causes of Prostatitis?
------------------------------
Prostatitis is usually caused by the following:
1.enteric Gram negative organism from intestinal or bladder infection
2.tuberculosis occasionally
What are the symptoms and signs of Prostatitis?
---------------------------------------------------
Persons who has Acute Prostatitis has the following:
Symptoms:
1.frequency of urination and nocturia
2.urgency of urination
3.hematuria(blood in urine)
4.low back pain
5.perineal pain
6.slow initiation of urine
Signs:
Tenderness on palpation of the prostate per rectum
How do you diagnose Prostatitis?
--------------------------------
Diagnosis can usually be made by :
1.History of frequency of urination, urgent urination
2.Tenderness on palpation of the prostate per rectum
3. Culture of the expressed prostatic fluid by prostatic massage
4.Urine and prostatic fluid culture will determine the micro-organism involved and the antibiotic most appropriate for it.
What is the complications of Prostatitis?
-------------------------------------
Infections from the prostate can lead to infections of the bladder and up to the kidney.
What is the treatment of Prostatitis?
-------------------------------------
Analgesic medicine
Antibiotics for infections especially after urine and prostatic fluid bacterial culture
Lots of fluids
What is the prognosis of Prostatitis?
----------------------------------------
Prognosis is usually good with medication.
Recurrence is quite common.
------------------------------
What is Prostatitis?
----------------------
Prostatitis is an acute or chronic infection of the prostate gland.
What are the causes of Prostatitis?
------------------------------
Prostatitis is usually caused by the following:
1.enteric Gram negative organism from intestinal or bladder infection
2.tuberculosis occasionally
What are the symptoms and signs of Prostatitis?
---------------------------------------------------
Persons who has Acute Prostatitis has the following:
Symptoms:
1.frequency of urination and nocturia
2.urgency of urination
3.hematuria(blood in urine)
4.low back pain
5.perineal pain
6.slow initiation of urine
Signs:
Tenderness on palpation of the prostate per rectum
How do you diagnose Prostatitis?
--------------------------------
Diagnosis can usually be made by :
1.History of frequency of urination, urgent urination
2.Tenderness on palpation of the prostate per rectum
3. Culture of the expressed prostatic fluid by prostatic massage
4.Urine and prostatic fluid culture will determine the micro-organism involved and the antibiotic most appropriate for it.
What is the complications of Prostatitis?
-------------------------------------
Infections from the prostate can lead to infections of the bladder and up to the kidney.
What is the treatment of Prostatitis?
-------------------------------------
Analgesic medicine
Antibiotics for infections especially after urine and prostatic fluid bacterial culture
Lots of fluids
What is the prognosis of Prostatitis?
----------------------------------------
Prognosis is usually good with medication.
Recurrence is quite common.
Monday, March 3, 2008
A Simple Guide to PECOMA Cancer
A Simple Guide to PECOMA Cancer
-----------------------------------------
What are PECOMA Cancer?
-------------------------------------
Perivascular epithelioid cell tumor (PEComa) is a neoplasm composed chiefly of HMB-45-positive(a marker which is relatively specific for melanoma) epithelioid cells with clear to granular cytoplasm and a perivascular distribution.
Such tumors have been reported in different organs
Although rare, only 20 + cases worldwide, PEC tumors (PEComas) should be regarded as a tumor of uncertain malignant potential.
Who is at risk of getting PECOMA Cancers?
------------------------------------------------------------
The median patient age was 46 years (range, 15-97 years).
There is a marked female predominance (22 females, 4 males).
Sites of involvement included
1.the omentum or mesentery (6 cases),
2.uterus (4 cases),
3.pelvic soft tissues (3 cases),
4.abdominal wall (2 cases),
5.uterine cervix (2 cases),
6.vagina,(1 case).
7.retroperitoneum,(1 case).
8.thigh,(1 case).
9.falciform ligament,(1 case).
10.scalp,(1 case).
11.broad ligament,(1 case).
12.forearm, (1 case).
13.shoulder,(1 case).
14.neck (1 case).
The tumors ranged from 1.6 to 29 cm in size (median, 7.8 cm).
Tumors were
1.epithelioid (N = 9),
2.spindled (N = 7), or
3.mixed (N = 10).
What are the Symptoms of Pecoma Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------------
Among the common warning signs are:
1.weight loss,
2.pain in the bones
3.swelling of lymph nodes
4.Persistent fever
5.loss of appetite
6.generalised weakness and pallour
What are the Causes of Pecoma Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------------
Unknown.
Certain genetic abnormalities may be present.
They are more common in women.
How do you diagnose Pecoma Cancer?
-------------------------------------------------
1.HMB-45-positive(a marker which is relatively specific for melanoma)is present in all cases
2.Perivascular epithelioid cell present on biopsy
What is the Treatment of Pecoma Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------
The onset of PEComa Cancer has been known to be very rapid.
Because of its vascular origin, it can spread very fast.
Surgery will be useful if detected at the early stage.
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are the main treatment for Pecoma cancer.
Besides these treatments, stem cells infusion also give patients and their families another source for a cure.
What are the Prognosis for Pecoma Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Generally poor because onset is fast and spread diffuse.
-----------------------------------------
What are PECOMA Cancer?
-------------------------------------
Perivascular epithelioid cell tumor (PEComa) is a neoplasm composed chiefly of HMB-45-positive(a marker which is relatively specific for melanoma) epithelioid cells with clear to granular cytoplasm and a perivascular distribution.
Such tumors have been reported in different organs
Although rare, only 20 + cases worldwide, PEC tumors (PEComas) should be regarded as a tumor of uncertain malignant potential.
Who is at risk of getting PECOMA Cancers?
------------------------------------------------------------
The median patient age was 46 years (range, 15-97 years).
There is a marked female predominance (22 females, 4 males).
Sites of involvement included
1.the omentum or mesentery (6 cases),
2.uterus (4 cases),
3.pelvic soft tissues (3 cases),
4.abdominal wall (2 cases),
5.uterine cervix (2 cases),
6.vagina,(1 case).
7.retroperitoneum,(1 case).
8.thigh,(1 case).
9.falciform ligament,(1 case).
10.scalp,(1 case).
11.broad ligament,(1 case).
12.forearm, (1 case).
13.shoulder,(1 case).
14.neck (1 case).
The tumors ranged from 1.6 to 29 cm in size (median, 7.8 cm).
Tumors were
1.epithelioid (N = 9),
2.spindled (N = 7), or
3.mixed (N = 10).
What are the Symptoms of Pecoma Cancer?
---------------------------------------------------------
Among the common warning signs are:
1.weight loss,
2.pain in the bones
3.swelling of lymph nodes
4.Persistent fever
5.loss of appetite
6.generalised weakness and pallour
What are the Causes of Pecoma Cancer?
----------------------------------------------------------
Unknown.
Certain genetic abnormalities may be present.
They are more common in women.
How do you diagnose Pecoma Cancer?
-------------------------------------------------
1.HMB-45-positive(a marker which is relatively specific for melanoma)is present in all cases
2.Perivascular epithelioid cell present on biopsy
What is the Treatment of Pecoma Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------
The onset of PEComa Cancer has been known to be very rapid.
Because of its vascular origin, it can spread very fast.
Surgery will be useful if detected at the early stage.
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are the main treatment for Pecoma cancer.
Besides these treatments, stem cells infusion also give patients and their families another source for a cure.
What are the Prognosis for Pecoma Cancer?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Generally poor because onset is fast and spread diffuse.
Sunday, March 2, 2008
A Simple Guide to Chikungunya Fever
A Simple Guide to Chikungunya Fever
--------------------------------------
What is Chikungunya Fever?
-------------------------------
Chikungunya fever is an acute illness caused by the chikungunya virus transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected Aedes mosquito.
How is the Chikungunya Fever transmitted?
-----------------------------------------
Chikungunya virus is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected Aedes mosquito.
Monkeys and other wild animals may be possible source of the virus.
Infected mosquitoes will spread the virus to other humans when they bite their skin.
The condition was first detected in Eastern Africa in the 1950 and recently has also outbreaks in India, Africa, Indonesia and Malaysia.
What are the Symptoms of chikungunya fever?
-----------------------------------------------
The incubation period in mosquito is 3-5 days and 1-12 days in humans.
Symptoms usually last 3-10 days.
Symptoms may be the same as denque fever:
1.fever of sudden onset
2.severe and prolonged joint pains with or without swelling
3.muscle pain
4.headache
5.chills
6.rash -no petechiae, more of a maculopaular rash
7.fatigue
8.nausea
9.vomiting.
The most severe symptom is the severe and prolonged joint pains which can even last up to 1 month.
Unlike dengue fever,there has been no documented cases of hemorrhagic (bleeding) or shock syndrome reported in chikungunya infection.
The chikungunya virus also does not affect the nervous system.
How do you diagnose chikungunya fever?
---------------------------------------
Diagnosis is made on the basis of :
1.high fever
2.severe and prolonged joint pain
3.blood tests for chikungunya fever
What is the treatment for chikungunya fever?
-------------------------------------------------
There is at present no specific medication or vaccine to treat chikungunya fever.
TREATMENT IS THEREFORE SYMPTOMATIC:
1.rest,
2.plenty of fluids and
3.pain medication such as paracetamol may relieve symptoms of joint pain, body aches and fever.
Aspirin and NSAIDs should be avoided if possible.
What is the prognosis of chikungunya fever?
--------------------------------------------
The illness is usually self-limiting.
Most symptoms lasts for 3-10 days and the joint pain may last for weeks to months.
Rarely does it cause death(through high fever and dehydration).
How can you prevent being infected with the chikungunya virus?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
The best way to prevent chikungunya infection is to avoid bites from the Aedes Mosquito.
Preventive measures are the same as dengue fever such as getting rid of mosquito breeding places.
--------------------------------------
What is Chikungunya Fever?
-------------------------------
Chikungunya fever is an acute illness caused by the chikungunya virus transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected Aedes mosquito.
How is the Chikungunya Fever transmitted?
-----------------------------------------
Chikungunya virus is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected Aedes mosquito.
Monkeys and other wild animals may be possible source of the virus.
Infected mosquitoes will spread the virus to other humans when they bite their skin.
The condition was first detected in Eastern Africa in the 1950 and recently has also outbreaks in India, Africa, Indonesia and Malaysia.
What are the Symptoms of chikungunya fever?
-----------------------------------------------
The incubation period in mosquito is 3-5 days and 1-12 days in humans.
Symptoms usually last 3-10 days.
Symptoms may be the same as denque fever:
1.fever of sudden onset
2.severe and prolonged joint pains with or without swelling
3.muscle pain
4.headache
5.chills
6.rash -no petechiae, more of a maculopaular rash
7.fatigue
8.nausea
9.vomiting.
The most severe symptom is the severe and prolonged joint pains which can even last up to 1 month.
Unlike dengue fever,there has been no documented cases of hemorrhagic (bleeding) or shock syndrome reported in chikungunya infection.
The chikungunya virus also does not affect the nervous system.
How do you diagnose chikungunya fever?
---------------------------------------
Diagnosis is made on the basis of :
1.high fever
2.severe and prolonged joint pain
3.blood tests for chikungunya fever
What is the treatment for chikungunya fever?
-------------------------------------------------
There is at present no specific medication or vaccine to treat chikungunya fever.
TREATMENT IS THEREFORE SYMPTOMATIC:
1.rest,
2.plenty of fluids and
3.pain medication such as paracetamol may relieve symptoms of joint pain, body aches and fever.
Aspirin and NSAIDs should be avoided if possible.
What is the prognosis of chikungunya fever?
--------------------------------------------
The illness is usually self-limiting.
Most symptoms lasts for 3-10 days and the joint pain may last for weeks to months.
Rarely does it cause death(through high fever and dehydration).
How can you prevent being infected with the chikungunya virus?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
The best way to prevent chikungunya infection is to avoid bites from the Aedes Mosquito.
Preventive measures are the same as dengue fever such as getting rid of mosquito breeding places.
Saturday, March 1, 2008
A Simple Guide to Dengue Fever
A Simple Guide to Dengue Fever
--------------------------------
What is dengue fever?
------------------------
Dengue fever is a acute viral infection caused by the dengue virus which is transmitted by the bite of an infected female Aedes msoquito.
What are the Types of Dengue Fever?
----------------------------------------------------
The dengue virus has 4 strains called serotypes 1, 2, 3 and 4.
An infection with one serotype does not protect you from the other serotypes.
A second dengue infection, especially with serotype 2, can cause an even worse infection such as Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever and Dengue Shock Syndrome which can be fatal.
What are the Symptoms of Dengue Fever?
----------------------------------------
The incubation period in mosquito is 8-12 days and 3-14 days in humans.
Symptoms usually last 3-14 days.
1.High, acute, prolonged fever (usually lasts for 5 to 7 days)
2.Severe headache
3.Pain behind the eyes
4.Muscle and joint pains
5.Rashes
6.Nausea , vomiting
7.Abdominal discomfort
8.Loss of appetite
9.Fatigue
10.Diarrhoea
A rash usually appears 3-4 days after the fever.
There are 3 types of dengue rash.
1.Petechial Rash:
----------------
This is the most common with the petechial rash appearing as red dots under the skin.
The rashes are usually found on the limbs and lower abdomen and is due to the bleeding under the skin.
2.Diffuse erythematous rash with areas of normal skin:
----------------------------------------------------
The whole skin becomes reddish with scattered, small areas of normal skin .
3.Maculopapular rash:
--------------------
The last type of rash appears as red flat or raised leisons(Maculopaular).
The rash can be itchy .
What are the Complications of Dengue Fever?
------------------------------------------
The complications of Dengue Fever are:
1.Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
---------------------------------------------
a. Fever
b.bleeding likely to occur from the nose, mouth, and gums.
Bruises and ecchymosis may appear as a sign of bleeding under the skin.
There are small red spots on the skin.
c.the urine may contain blood.
d.vomiting of blood and malena(black stools) indicate bleeding in the stomach.
e.low plalelet count of <100,000
f.Hypoalbuminaemia
g.pleural effusion
h.neurological disturbances(seizures,cranial nerve signs and coma) may indicate bleeding in the brain
2. Dengue Shock Syndrome
-----------------------------
Without prompt treatment for the bleeding, the person can go into
a.shock
b.hypotension
c.narrowed pulse pressure(< 2omm Hg)
d.impaired organ perfusion which result in organ failure and death.
Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever and Dengue Shock Syndrome is fatal in about 5 percent of the cases, mostly among children and young adults.
How do you diagnose Dengue Fever?
---------------------------------
1.History of acute fever and bleeding signs
2.A low platelet count (<100,000)is suggestive of dengue fever.
3.Specific blood test(IgG and IgM antibody) for dengue virus can also be conducted. IgM antibodies occur on the 5th day of illness and last for 2 months.
What is the treatment of dengue fever?
-----------------------------------------
There is no specific anti-viral drug to treat the disease or a vaccine to prevent a person from being infected with the dengue virus.
Treatment is mainly supportive.
1. Rest
2.drinking lots of water to prevent dehydration will help.
3.Paracetamol for fever, severe headaches and body aches( Avoid aspirin and NSAIDs due to the risk of bleeding) to reduce the discomfort.
4. Intravenous fluids for hypotension and dehydration.
5.Daily blood tests (platelets and hematocrit)may be necessary to monitor the risk of bleeding
6. Platelets transfusion when the the platelet count is less than 20,000.
The illness can last up to 10 days, but complete recovery can take as long as a month.
How is dengue fever spread?
-----------------------------
Dengue Fever is spread only through the bite of the infected Aedes mosquitoes.
The transmission cycle for dengue starts when:
1.Infected Aedes mosquito bites a healthy person.
2.4-7 days later,the infected person develops fever
3..When fever starts, the person is infectious for about 5 days.
4.If an Aedes mosquito bites the person during this time when he is infectious, it will be infected by the the dengue virus.
5.The virus will multiply in the second mosquito for 5-7 days.
6.The mosquito then becomes infective.
7.The cycle starts again when it bites another person.
How can you prevent being infected with the dengue virus?
----------------------------------------------------------
To prevent dengue fever, you must prevent the breeding of its carrier, the Aedes mosquitoes.
This will be explained another time
--------------------------------
What is dengue fever?
------------------------
Dengue fever is a acute viral infection caused by the dengue virus which is transmitted by the bite of an infected female Aedes msoquito.
What are the Types of Dengue Fever?
----------------------------------------------------
The dengue virus has 4 strains called serotypes 1, 2, 3 and 4.
An infection with one serotype does not protect you from the other serotypes.
A second dengue infection, especially with serotype 2, can cause an even worse infection such as Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever and Dengue Shock Syndrome which can be fatal.
What are the Symptoms of Dengue Fever?
----------------------------------------
The incubation period in mosquito is 8-12 days and 3-14 days in humans.
Symptoms usually last 3-14 days.
1.High, acute, prolonged fever (usually lasts for 5 to 7 days)
2.Severe headache
3.Pain behind the eyes
4.Muscle and joint pains
5.Rashes
6.Nausea , vomiting
7.Abdominal discomfort
8.Loss of appetite
9.Fatigue
10.Diarrhoea
A rash usually appears 3-4 days after the fever.
There are 3 types of dengue rash.
1.Petechial Rash:
----------------
This is the most common with the petechial rash appearing as red dots under the skin.
The rashes are usually found on the limbs and lower abdomen and is due to the bleeding under the skin.
2.Diffuse erythematous rash with areas of normal skin:
----------------------------------------------------
The whole skin becomes reddish with scattered, small areas of normal skin .
3.Maculopapular rash:
--------------------
The last type of rash appears as red flat or raised leisons(Maculopaular).
The rash can be itchy .
What are the Complications of Dengue Fever?
------------------------------------------
The complications of Dengue Fever are:
1.Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
---------------------------------------------
a. Fever
b.bleeding likely to occur from the nose, mouth, and gums.
Bruises and ecchymosis may appear as a sign of bleeding under the skin.
There are small red spots on the skin.
c.the urine may contain blood.
d.vomiting of blood and malena(black stools) indicate bleeding in the stomach.
e.low plalelet count of <100,000
f.Hypoalbuminaemia
g.pleural effusion
h.neurological disturbances(seizures,cranial nerve signs and coma) may indicate bleeding in the brain
2. Dengue Shock Syndrome
-----------------------------
Without prompt treatment for the bleeding, the person can go into
a.shock
b.hypotension
c.narrowed pulse pressure(< 2omm Hg)
d.impaired organ perfusion which result in organ failure and death.
Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever and Dengue Shock Syndrome is fatal in about 5 percent of the cases, mostly among children and young adults.
How do you diagnose Dengue Fever?
---------------------------------
1.History of acute fever and bleeding signs
2.A low platelet count (<100,000)is suggestive of dengue fever.
3.Specific blood test(IgG and IgM antibody) for dengue virus can also be conducted. IgM antibodies occur on the 5th day of illness and last for 2 months.
What is the treatment of dengue fever?
-----------------------------------------
There is no specific anti-viral drug to treat the disease or a vaccine to prevent a person from being infected with the dengue virus.
Treatment is mainly supportive.
1. Rest
2.drinking lots of water to prevent dehydration will help.
3.Paracetamol for fever, severe headaches and body aches( Avoid aspirin and NSAIDs due to the risk of bleeding) to reduce the discomfort.
4. Intravenous fluids for hypotension and dehydration.
5.Daily blood tests (platelets and hematocrit)may be necessary to monitor the risk of bleeding
6. Platelets transfusion when the the platelet count is less than 20,000.
The illness can last up to 10 days, but complete recovery can take as long as a month.
How is dengue fever spread?
-----------------------------
Dengue Fever is spread only through the bite of the infected Aedes mosquitoes.
The transmission cycle for dengue starts when:
1.Infected Aedes mosquito bites a healthy person.
2.4-7 days later,the infected person develops fever
3..When fever starts, the person is infectious for about 5 days.
4.If an Aedes mosquito bites the person during this time when he is infectious, it will be infected by the the dengue virus.
5.The virus will multiply in the second mosquito for 5-7 days.
6.The mosquito then becomes infective.
7.The cycle starts again when it bites another person.
How can you prevent being infected with the dengue virus?
----------------------------------------------------------
To prevent dengue fever, you must prevent the breeding of its carrier, the Aedes mosquitoes.
This will be explained another time
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